A comprehensive guide to copy-editing

This course was developed by the Publishing Training Centre..

Welcome to What is copy-editing? This e-Learning module aims to help you gain a clear understanding of what copy-editing entails, and whether you might wish to pursue further study in this area.

It is divided into two parts, and seven units, as follows:

Part 1 – The editorial process

Unit 1 – Copy-editing and proofreading

Unit 2 – What does a copy-editor do?

Unit 3 – Publishing workflows

Part 2 – Managing the publishing process

Unit 4 – Elements of a publication

Unit 5 – Managing the publishing process

Unit 6 – Style and house style

Unit 7 - Specialist subjects

Next steps

Resources, glossary and appendix.

Not available

Unit 1 - Copy-editing and proofreading

Why copy-edit and proofread?

The good copy-editor is a rare creature: an intelligent reader and a tactful and sensitive critic; someone who cares enough about perfection of detail to spend a long time checking small points of consistency in someone else’s work but has the judgement not to waste time or antagonize the author by making unnecessary changes. – Judith Butcher

The function of copy-editing and proofreading – the editorial process – is to ensure that a publication fulfils its purpose and is readable. However accomplished the author, he or she is too close to the work to read it as if coming new to it. The copy-editor has to put themself in the position of both the reader and the author and ensure that the author’s intended meaning is clear.

The editorial process described here is that used in the world of book publishing, where the tasks and roles tend to be clearly defined. In other areas of work the structure of the process might be quite different – author, copy-editor and proofreader might all be the same person, or many other stakeholders could be involved. However, it is useful to set out the difference between copy-editing and proofreading, as separating the two is good practice and creates efficiency in time and cost. Terms in bold are defined in the glossary.

The second section of this part of the module (Unit 2), looks at the different roles and tasks involved in publishing a title. Unit 3 describes publishing workflows, following a publication from concept to published book and beyond. In each of the workflows described it is assumed that the basic content is in place and fits the brief before a typescript (also known as a manuscript) reaches the copy-editor. So why copy-edit and proofread?

Copy-editing

The role of the copy-editor is to ensure that the typescript is:

free from errors of grammar, spelling and punctuation
correct in factual detail
formatted according to the requirements of the publishing process
readable and comprehensible at the level of readership expected
consistent in presentation and in content
structured in the way required for publication, so that it will fit the format of whatever form it is to take
free from libel, plagiarism and copyright infringement
consistent with and adheres to inclusive language guidelines

Each of these functions is discussed and explained in detail in the next section. Some of the tasks listed above, such as checking technical facts and clearing copyright, will usually be carried out by others, but the copy-editor must be alert to them and should highlight any instances that may have been missed.

A copy-edited typescript should be ready to typeset or upload. The copy-editor should not assume that errors or inconsistencies can be picked up by the proofreader, or material added at a later stage, as this adds to costs.

Proofreading

The role of the proofreader is to check that the typeset publication is:

free from errors missed by the copy-editor
correctly structured and laid out according to the brief given to the typesetter/web developer/designer
readable: the layout of the text flows in such a way that the reader can follow it, and it is legible
complete: nothing has been left out
free from typesetting errors and errors in illustrative material
correctly cross-referenced internally and externally
consistent not only in style, but also in content

What is the difference between copy-editing and proofreading?

Copy-editing

Copy-editing is more invasive than proofreading. It involves shaping the text ready for publication. Unit 2 looks at the different levels of intervention that may be required from the copy-editor.

Most copy-editing today is done on screen using software such as Microsoft Word, although some types of publishing require more specialised software. It usually involves some kind of tagging or formatting, for example applying set styles in Word or tagging with XML codes. This not only helps to simplify and speed up the typesetting process, but also allows the publication to be automatically formatted as an electronic file for publication online or as an eBook.

Proofreading

Proofreading should be less invasive than copy-editing, unless the publishing process demands additional changes at this stage. The proofreader acts as a second pair of eyes, checking for errors of grammar, spelling and punctuation. Proofreading also has important functions that copy-editing does not ─ it involves checking the typesetter’s work: ensuring that correct fonts and styles have been used, that the layout makes sense and is readable, and that rules of typesetting (e.g., correct hyphenation, avoidance of widows and orphans) have been followed.

In the case of a fixed-format publication such as a book, journal or brochure, proofreading is either done using a paper print-out or on screen on a PDF. There are standard proofreading symbols which are used for marking up proofs on paper. PDFs can be marked similarly using the available tools in Adobe Acrobat Reader. In the case of a website or other purely electronic format, proofreading is done on screen and the corrections submitted on a spreadsheet or list.

Why two different stages?

The two stages of copy-editing and proofreading fulfil different functions, as described above. It is bad practice to typeset a book or create a webpage without copy-editing it first, as it is difficult, time-consuming and costly to change errors at a later stage.

Proofreading involves checking of presentation that is only possible after typesetting/formatting/uploading. It is possible to save time and money by skipping the proofreading stage, but this inevitably results in a loss of quality.

Proofreading is sometimes considered ‘easier’ than copy-editing, but it is different from reading for pleasure, and requires the same skills and knowledge as copy-editing. Some editors prefer the careful cross-checking involved in proofreading, while others are happier carrying out the more invasive process of copy-editing.

Unit 2 - What does a copy-editor do?

This section:

looks in more detail at the functions of copy-editing as outlined in Unit 1
briefly considers the different levels of editing that may be required
sets out some of the basic rules and conventions of copy-editing
describes the different formats in which copy-editing is carried out

What does a copy-editor do?

The role of the copy-editor is essentially to make a publication readable by the intended audience ─ free from distracting errors and inconsistencies, and structured in a way that is easily navigable.

Today, most copy-editing is done on screen using some form of software (usually Microsoft Word), and it often involves some formatting in the software to prepare it for whatever method of delivery is being used (printed publication, web page, digital download). Before desktop computers were available, copy-editing was done by hand, ‘marking up’ hard-copy text which was then rekeyed by the typesetter. This method is still sometimes used, either because publishers prefer the control it gives them over editorial changes, or because a small number of copy-editors who dislike on-screen copy-editing have skills that employers wish to retain.

Grammar, spelling and punctuation

The most obvious role of the copy-editor is to correct errors of spelling, grammar and punctuation. No software can do this automatically. It is best to turn off automatic grammar checking, which is unreliable at best, and to use spellcheck only as an alert or back up. It will not, for example, pick up common errors such as ‘it’s’ instead of ‘its’, ‘illusive’ instead of ‘elusive’, or ‘lead’ instead of ‘led’.

Copy-editors must have a good eye for detail, and a strong sense of correct English usage. At the same time, they must be pragmatic and avoid being pedantic. It is quite acceptable to split infinitives, start sentences with conjunctions, and to put a comma before ‘and’, provided the meaning is clear and the rhythm of the sentence sounds like spoken English. Clarity, rather than stringent application of grammatical rules, is the goal, and the painstaking enforcement of detailed grammatical points may well lead to the copy-editor overlooking errors on a much larger scale. The copy-editor should be wary of their own particular grammatical obsessions and remember that the ‘voice’ of the author must be retained. Change for the sake of change is always to be avoided.

As Steven Pinker has pointed out, it is worth remembering the example set by US chief justice John Roberts during the swearing in of Barack Obama as president in 2009. Roberts was so offended by the split infinitive in the phrase ‘solemnly swear that I will faithfully execute the office of president of the United States’ that he changed the wording to ‘solemnly swear that I will execute the office of president of the United States faithfully’. This led to fears that the inauguration was invalid and the vows had to be repeated, with the original wording, later that day in private. In the meantime, it was uncertain whether or not Obama was legally president.

Factual detail

It should not be part of the copy-editor’s job to check all the facts in a script – if there are doubts about this, an expert reviewer or fact checker should be employed. However, the copy-editor must be alert to obvious errors, use common sense, and check or query with the author any facts which seem improbable. For example, in fiction editing the copy-editor is expected to check that world events are correctly dated and described, and names of real people are correctly spelt. A copy-editor working on a geography textbook would be expected to correct errors such as ‘the country of Africa’, the suggestion that we are still living in the twentieth century, or the mention of polar bears living in the Antarctic.

It is customary for the copy-editor to check that figures in tables add up correctly and that equations in maths and science texts balance. URLs should be tested to check that they work and take the reader to the correct website.

If repeated factual errors are found and this casts doubt on the reliability of the text, the copy-editor should alert the publisher.

Formatting

Formatting content

Part of the copy-editing process is to embolden and italicise words as required by convention and by the style of the publication (the use of bold and italic is discussed below).

In science and maths texts, formatting may involve using equation software such as Equation Editor or Math Type, or more basic formatting such as subscripts, superscripts, and symbols such as Greek letters and multiplication signs.

In foreign-language publications it means checking and inserting accents, letters or special characters not found in the English alphabet.

Formatting for design

If a text is to be typeset, formatting it to look like the finished product in word-processing software such as Word is counterproductive. This formatting will either be lost when the text is dropped into typesetting software such as Adobe InDesign or will have to be taken out by the typesetter. Double paragraph returns, multiple tabs and word spaces, boxes, automatic numbering, diagrams, photos, text in multiple columns and track changes must all be removed before a manuscript is typeset. Some copy-editors prefer to do this at the start of the copy-editing process so they have a clean manuscript with which to work.

Tables, automatic bullets, bold and italic do convert into InDesign and can be used in typescripts. All text should be tidied so that consistent fonts are used throughout. The typesetter will need some indication of different features, such as whether text is a heading, body text, a caption and so on. This can be indicated by tagging the text with words or letters in brackets as indicated by the publisher, or applying styles from the styles palette provided in Word. You will need to provide a list of tags used for the typesetter to follow.

However, now that most books and magazines are published digitally as well as in print, the majority of publishers employ some kind of template in which text features (headings, boxes, tables, etc.) are tagged in a way that will be retained through the publishing process, and can be used to automatically format both print and electronic products. Systems of tagging vary from publisher to publisher and copy-editors are trained as appropriate.

Formatting in software such as Word does not convert well to HTML, so text that is going on a website is usually formatted in the content management system (CMS) that supports the site.

Readable language

The principal function of the copy-editor is to make a publication accessible to the reader, and part of this is making the language approachable. The level of copy-editing involved depends on the type of publication and the professionalism of the author.

Journalists are trained to write well, but the subeditor is expected to cut and restructure the text if necessary to fit the page layout and style of the publication.
At the opposite extreme a novelist (think of James Joyce or Virginia Woolf) may choose to write in a style that is not immediately accessible and for the copy-editor to alter this would be destructive.
Academic authors tend to write in a particular, abstract style involving complex sentence structures. This is fine if the audience is other academics, as in a research paper, but not if it is school students or the general public.
Many publications are written by authors who are not professional writers but are experts in another field. They may for example be teachers, fitness instructors or celebrity chefs. In this case, the copy-editor may need to work hard to tidy up the text, simplify sentence structures and bring out the meaning.

A section below looks more closely at the rules of copy-editing.

Consistency

It is distracting for the reader and looks unprofessional if text contains randomly capitalised words, different spellings of the same word, contradictions in fact and other inconsistencies. A working copy-editor becomes accustomed to taking mental note of such differences and checking them throughout a publication.

Most publishers have a house-style guide which they send out to copy-editors. This varies in length from a few pages to a small booklet and specifies, for example, whether ‘s’ or ‘z’ spellings are used (‘modernize’ or ‘modernise’), punctuation, hyphenation and capitalisation conventions, preferred abbreviations and spellings, use of single or double quotes, and how references and quotations should be dealt with. The purpose of house style is to impose a professional consistency and to avoid time-wasting in deciding every time it arises whether, for example, to capitalise the word president, or to refer to the US or the USA.

It is good practice for the copy-editor to keep an alphabetical list of such words as they arise in a work that is being edited, for example whether the spelling ‘Mohammed’ or ‘Muhammad’, ‘nation state’ or ‘nation-state’, ‘textbook’ or ‘text book’ is being used, and any other matters not covered by the house style, such as elision, style of dates, etc. The house style may allow for author preference on some matters, but it is important that use is consistent throughout the book. It does not usually matter to the reader how words are spelt, but it is distracting if spelling varies.

When editing a work of fiction, the copy-editor should keep a list of dates, characters and their descriptions, and a timeline, as a way of checking that the author has not made errors in continuity. A character who experiences a change of eye colour or name partway through the book, a lost object that mysteriously reappears, or the resurrection of someone who died three years earlier in the narrative is distracting for the reader and undermines the whole experience of reading the novel.

In addition to a house style, some publishers refer the copy-editor to a particular dictionary (e.g., Collins or Oxford), and/or to reference works such as New Hart’s Rules and the New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors. These outline certain conventions and rules.

Consistency within a publication is more important than following set rules or indeed the copy-editor’s own preference. The next section looks more closely at editorial conventions and issues of house style.

Structure

Almost all publications have some structure, even if this only takes the form of being broken up into chapters, or pages on a website. The copy-editor must check that the structure is consistent throughout and has been properly applied.

For example, each chapter of a textbook may have certain features such as an introduction at the beginning, glossary terms defined in boxes in the text, a bibliography, and questions to test your understanding at the end. The copy-editor must check that these are present in each chapter and are formatted in the same way in each instance.

If images or tables are numbered, the copy-editor should check the sequential numbering of these and that references to them in the text are correct.

Web pages will be structured within the CMS with certain fields that must be completed. The copy-editor should check that text is present for each of these fields, with appropriate word counts.

In printed material, it is customary for the design to use different levels of heading. These normally follow a descending level of importance and prominence, for example:

Book title
Subtitle
Section heading
Chapter heading
A-head
B-head
C-head

and must be clearly identified in the formatting and consistently applied.

Legal issues

Copyright

It is not normally the responsibility of the copy-editor to clear permissions to reproduce material, and any issues of copyright should have been flagged by the author at the time of writing. However, the copy-editor may be the first person other than the author to give the typescript a close read, and it is important to keep an eye out for material which may be copyrighted to someone else, and to highlight this to the publisher.

Copyright law is complex, but any citation of any published work should be taken note of. Even very short quotations from song lyrics or poems may require permission. Extracts from novels, works of non-fiction, websites, newspaper articles, speeches and so on may need clearance. All images including paintings, photographs and cartoons are also subject to copyright, even if they are widely available on the internet.

For more on the intricacies of copyright, see the PTC’s e-learning module, Copyright Essentials.

Plagiarism

Given the ease of copying and pasting from the internet, it is increasingly common for authors to reuse material as if it were their own, sometimes without realising what they are doing. This often becomes clear to the copy-editor because of a sudden change in tone, a jump in continuity or unusual text formatting. If in doubt, the copy-editor should paste a sentence or two into a search engine and see what comes up. If serious plagiarism is discovered, the publisher must be informed.

Libel

We live in an increasingly litigious society and publishers are in danger of being sued for libellous statements – which do not have to be untrue to be libellous. The copy-editor should keep an eye out for derogatory unsupported remarks or accusations, particularly about well-known people or organisations, and highlight these for the publisher.

Inclusive language and imagery

The way authors and editors use language has real-world consequences. Inclusive language and imagery endeavours to treat everyone with respect, dignity and impartiality, and it is the responsibility of the publisher to ensure their publications avoids perpetuating prejudice and stereotypes. In specialist cases, for example a gender politics textbook, a historical account of enslavement, or stories related to the experiences of marginalised people, the publisher should consult a sensitivity or expert reader.

However, it is increasingly the responsibility of the copy-editor to check or highlight text and images that do not follow inclusive guidelines around the protected characteristics of age, race, religion, sex and sexual orientation, gender, disability and mental health. While there is no single authority, many organisations, in particular charities, local authorities and government bodies, have style rules about the way language is used when referring to difference or to minorities. In particular, copy-editors should ensure that all text and images:

are positive and inclusive
avoid or actively challenge stereotypes and bias
make no assumptions about what is ‘normal’
avoid patronising or outdated terms
avoid irrelevant reference to the protected characteristics listed above

Inclusive imagery
All images should follow the same guidelines applied to language, but it is also important to ensure diversity is portrayed through the inclusion of a range of ethnicities, age groups, genders, disabilities, cultures and body types.

Images should avoid irrelevant clichés that perpetuates stereotypes, such as black people playing basketball, male pilots, women in the kitchen. Opportunities should be found for minority groups to be protagonists, not supporting players.

There is more on inclusive language and how to employ it in your copy-editing in later units of this module.

Levels of copy-editing
Depending on the type of publication, the author and the readership, the copy-editor may be asked to edit at different levels.

The most basic type of copy-editing involves simply correcting typographical errors, formatting the text so that it is tidy or in the styles required, and ensuring it is consistent in spelling, cross references and the use of punctuation.
A heavier copy-edit requires working with the language used, cutting out repetition, clarifying meaning and checking factual errors.
A full structural edit may mean writing missing sections such as an introduction or summary, introducing headings, moving chunks of text around, cutting the number of words to a required length and simplifying or improving the use of language to clarify meaning.
Sometimes the tasks at different levels may overlap. The publisher will specify anomalies and/or additional tasks in the copy-editing brief.

Rules of copy-editing
The following may all be covered by house style, but some general rules and principles apply. For more detail on these topics, including examples of usage, see Unit 6, Style and house style.

Use of bold and italic
Emboldening and italicisation of words in the text should be kept to a minimum as it is distracting for the reader. House style will normally indicate preferred use of bold and italic.

Bold type is most often used to emphasise key terms in the text ─ perhaps those that are defined in a glossary ─ or to make certain words stand out, for example in a bulleted list. Certain mathematical symbols are conventionally emboldened.

Despite what Word suggests, quotations should not be italic ─ large chunks of italic text are ugly and hard to read.

Capitalisation
The contemporary style is to use capitalisation as little as possible. It should be used for proper nouns ─ names of places, people, trade names, publications, etc. but for little else.

Punctuation
Punctuation should be used to make meaning clear. There are also a number of conventions and house-style choices around its use, all of which are listed in Unit 6.

Numbers
The usual convention is to write numbers from one to ten in words, and numbers above ten in figures. Any number at the start of a sentence should be in words (‘Fifty-nine years ago’). The exception to this is in maths and science, for example in equations, where all numbers will be figures. Numbers before units (3 mm) are also written as figures.

Numbers of four or more digits normally have a comma (1,543), except in science and maths where numbers of five or more digits have a thin space (15 345).

Unit 3 - Publishing workflows

This unit describes the path a publication takes through the publishing process, from writing/commissioning to finished product. It looks at how copy-editing and proofreading fit into this workflow and at the editorial roles involved in the publishing process. It also explains briefly what the other players do.

Digital products

It is important to note that today very few publications end up solely as printed books.

The majority of published books are also available as digital files for eReaders and other mobile devices.
Most newspapers, some magazines and many other periodicals have online editions.
Many academic journals are now only published online and are not available as hard copy.
Some publications, particularly educational books, have digital add-ons that can be accessed through the eBook or from an associated website.
A growing number of publications are digital products, perhaps accessed online via a subscription service, which may have a complex array of elements.

All of this digital publishing requires additional workflows that differ from the basic print-based process. However, the functions of copy-editing and proofreading – to produce an error-free publication that is comprehensible to the reader – remain the same.

Notes on roles in the workflow

The workflows set out here are those associated with publishers. Organisations producing, for example, publicity material or internal publications such as annual reports may have just one person fulfilling the roles of designer, editor, production controller and so on. The extent to which all of this work is outsourced to freelancers or external companies also varies from one organisation to another, but in general outsourcing is growing and companies have fewer internal departments.

Note too that job titles and roles vary from one organisation to another. There is no industry-wide agreement on the job description of say, desk editor, who may also be called editor, production editor, project manager and so on.

Educational publishing

Figure 1 shows a basic workflow for a textbook, reference book or other educational title. The job titles in the diagram are explained below.

Figure 1 Workflow for a textbook or reference book

Editorial roles

Publisher/commissioning editor/senior editor

In educational publishing almost all books are commissioned to fill a perceived market need – for example a textbook for a specific curriculum, a grammar book for a foreign language, or a revision guide for a particular exam. The commissioning editor’s job is to identify the publishing opportunity (working with sales and marketing colleagues) and to commission an appropriate author to write the book.

The author will be given a brief specifying the book’s extent (usually number of words), structure, content and delivery date. Before the book is commissioned the commissioning editor has to produce financial plans to show that the title will make a respectable profit within a certain period (say 3–5 years), and must take into account existing competition and the size of the market. The production department advises on the costs of producing the book, and on scheduling.

Commissioning editors usually work in-house, but part or all of this role may sometimes be outsourced.

Development editor

‘Development’ of a publication means working with the author to ensure that the final typescript fulfils the brief – the structure, style of writing, extent and areas covered are all appropriate. Most authors of educational titles are not professional writers and they may need a lot of feedback to help them produce a book that is suitable.

Authors are normally asked to submit a sample chapter early on in the writing process so the development editor can check they are on the right track. The complete typescript should also be checked by the development editor before it goes to the desk editor.

This may be a separate role, or may be carried out by the commissioning editor, or the desk editor. It may also be outsourced to a freelancer.

If a publication has potential inclusivity concerns, the development editor may decide to send it to a sensitivity and/or expert reader at this stage in the process.

Desk editor/production editor/project manager
Once a completed manuscript is delivered by the author and approved by the development and/or commissioning editor it is passed to the desk editor, who project manages the publication from this point until the final file is delivered to the printer.

The basic process, as shown in Figure 1, is normally as follows:

the typescript is edited by a copy-editor (usually freelance) and photos and artworks are briefed
it is sent to a typesetter (usually via the production department)
lo res photos and artworks are inserted in the proofs by the typesetter – this may be at first or second proof stage
proofs of the typeset pages come back from the typesetter and are sent out to the author, proofreader and other parties where necessary (sensitivity or expert reader if this did not occur during development, exam board consultant, etc.)
corrections from the author, proofreader and other parties are collated on to one set of proofs and sent back to the typesetter
further proofs are supplied by the typesetter and checked by the desk editor
there may be two or more proof stages depending on whether the typesetter has made all the marked changes correctly and whether last-minute changes are required by the author or commissioning editor
all hi-res (high-resolution) image files and final artworks are supplied to the typesetter
if an index is required, the final proofs are sent to an indexer and the index is then typeset
the finalised pages are sent to the printer as a print-ready PDF
proofs and running sheets from the printer are checked by the desk editor, production department or editorial assistant

The role of the desk editor is therefore one of coordination. They have to:

work with the production department on scheduling the process
work with the design department, supplying sample text on which to base the design
organise copy-editing and proofreading – these tasks are usually sent out to freelance copy-editors and the desk editor must find and brief the freelancer, agreeing a fee and a deadline
liaise with the author to clear up any queries and/or action any changes that arise in the publishing process and to make sure they have read and approved the proofs
ensure that any copyright issues are dealt with, for example permission is obtained to reproduce any text extracts taken from other publications
brief a photo researcher with a list of any photographs required
brief any diagrams (artworks) required – these may be drawn by the typesetter or if they are more complex a separate artist may be commissioned
liaise with the marketing department to ensure it has all the information it needs to promote the book, and any sample material it requires
carry out editorial tasks such as checking the work of the freelance copy-editor and proofreader, checking off corrections when proofs come back from the typesetter, editing any last-minute changes or additions
brief an indexer and send the final proofs for indexing
check proofs from the printer
manage any digital/electronic component of the book through its various stages
liaise with the commissioning editor to inform them of any major concerns or issues that could cause slippage or increase costs

Given the nature of this role, liaising with multiple parties, the desk editor is normally an in-house role, but it may be outsourced at busy times.

Editorial assistant

Editorial assistant is often an entry-level job for graduates who want to get into publishing. The role involves supporting the desk editor and commissioning editor with such administrative tasks as:

sending contracts and advance copies to authors
checking and collating proofs
creating artwork and photo briefs
adding information to internal databases
keeping schedules up to date
maintaining lists of freelance suppliers
dealing with copyright permissions – contacting other publishers for permission to reuse material

Copy-editor

Some copy-editing may be done by the desk editor, but today most is sent to freelance copy-editors, who tend to specialise in certain subjects. The job of the copy-editor is, as described earlier, to prepare the typescript for typesetting, by editing for consistency and accuracy, formatting, and possibly creating lists of artworks and photos required, including briefing both using publisher’s guidelines.

Proofreader

Proofreading is usually done by freelance suppliers. The proofreader may also be asked to collate corrections from a number of different parties.

Indexer

Indexers usually work in a freelance capacity. They are sent the final proofs of the book, and they compile an index according to the requirements of the publisher. Indexers tend to have an editorial background, but this is a specialist task.

Sensitivity and expert readers

Sensitivity reviews are outsourced, either to expert freelance suppliers or specialist services. Readers are sent the final typescript or the first or second proofs of the book, and they review the text according to inclusive language guidelines, suggesting rewrites or providing changes where necessary and/or appropriate.

Expert readers are experts in a particular subject area, either through their personal or academic background or work experience. They are sent the final typescript or the first or second proofs of the book, and they review the text for accuracy and authenticity.

Other roles

Production

The production department is responsible for placing work with typesetters and printers, agreeing payment and schedules.

Sales and marketing

The marketing department promotes the publication for sale through various means, including websites, postal mailings, email, social media such as Twitter and Instagram, and advertising. It must be aware of other players in the market, demand and appropriate pricing. This department is responsible for agreeing deals with distributors and retailers. The company may have a sales force which visits potential customers such as bookshops or, in the case of educational books, schools, colleges and libraries. Small companies are unlikely to have a sales force but may outsource the function to another organisation, or rely on direct mail and web marketing.

Design

The designer creates the look of a book. Format is usually agreed by the marketing department and the publisher. The designer creates the page layout, decides on the fonts and colours to be used for each feature and puts together a template and brief for the typesetter.

More complex and highly illustrated books may be laid out entirely by a designer rather than a typesetter.

Photo research

This may be carried out by an internal department or outsourced. Photos to illustrate the book are obtained from photo agencies, usually on the basis of one-off use.

Artist

If there are complex or specialised illustrations (for example cartoons, maps, biological drawings) an artist may be commissioned to draw these. Simpler artworks such as graphs or flow charts are often drawn by the typesetter.

Typesetter

The typesetter uses the template and guidelines provided by the designer to convert the typescript into pages, laid out in the correct typeface and with all elements such as tables and artworks in place. Specialist software such as Adobe InDesign is used for this. Proofs (usually as PDFs) are then supplied to the publisher.

The typesetter often converts the print files for distribution as an eBook.

Printer

The printer is supplied with a final print PDF. This is used to impose the pages, print and bind the book.

Distributor

Printed books are delivered to a warehouse from where they can be sent out to retailers such as bookshops, Amazon, wholesalers and other customers.

Fiction publishing

Figure 2 below shows the basic workflow for a novel. The production process – design, typesetting, proof stages and so on, is the same as that described above for a textbook, but the editorial roles are slightly different.

Figure 2 Workflow for a novel

Editorial roles

Editor/publisher/commissioning editor

In fiction publishing, few books are commissioned in the way textbooks are. Agents play a key role. They are aware of the kind of book that a publisher or imprint normally produces, and they submit typescripts to editors at those publishers. Editors are always looking for new books, and if they like a typescript they will go through the process of acquiring the rights. Once an author is established, deals are usually made for a number of books. The other way that editors acquire books to publish is by buying a backlist from another publisher. For example, in 2021 Wellbeck Publishing Group acquired from Palazzo Editions the backlist of veteran children’s book illustrator Robert Ingpen, which included illustrated editions of stories such as Pinocchio and The Jungle Book.

Non-fiction trade publishing is similar. Editors are well networked, follow up their own ideas and work through agents to actively seek out authors. Celebrities and TV tie-ins are important.

The relationship between editor and author is important. The commissioning editor does the initial edit, and may suggest changes to plot and structure, areas where the story does not work and so on. The editor may commission a sensitivity or expert reader to ensure the text and its content is inclusive. Some authors are more open to feedback than others and the editor must work with the author to achieve the best book possible.

The commissioning editor briefs the designer who works on the book jacket – again this is important in trade publishing and will be released early for marketing purposes.

Junior/assistant editor

Once the editor is happy with the basic content of the typescript it is passed to the junior editor, who, like the desk editor in textbook publishing, is normally in-house and project manages the rest of the process. The junior editor is responsible for:

working with the production department on scheduling the process (production also deals with internal design)
organising and briefing the freelance copy-editor and proofreader
liaising with the author to clear up queries and to make sure they have read and approved the proofs
ensuring that any copyright issues are dealt with, for example permission is obtained to reproduce any quotations, song lyrics or poems the author wishes to include
briefing any photos and diagrams, although this is less common in fiction publishing
liaising with the marketing department to ensure it has all the information it needs to promote the book, and any sample material it requires
carrying out editorial tasks such as checking the work of the freelance copy-editor and proofreader, checking off corrections when proofs come back from the typesetter, and editing any last-minute changes or additions
checking proofs from the printer and eBook manufacturer
liaising with the editor/publisher/commissioning editor to inform them of any major concerns or issues that could delay the process or increase costs

Copy-editor

The copy-editor is normally freelance. Although a first edit will have been done by the commissioning editor, the copy-editor is expected to:

eliminate typos and inconsistencies in spelling and style
edit for sense and grammar
fact-check world events mentioned in the book
ensure that the author has been consistent in plot and structure, for example cross-checking timelines, visual appearance of characters, dates and places
ensure that inclusive language and imagery guidelines have been met

Copy-editing is normally done in Word using track changes so that the changes are visible and the commissioning editor and author can check them. A fiction copy-editor must be particularly careful to retain the author’s ‘voice’, even if the style of writing may seem incorrect according to strict grammatical rules.

Proofreader

As in other types of publishing, the freelance proofreader double checks for editorial errors, ensures that the book has been correctly typeset and nothing is missing, and may collate corrections from a number of parties.

Highly illustrated books

In more highly illustrated books, such as books for younger children, or ‘how-to’ non-fiction books, design and illustration may take precedence over text. In spread-based books the content of each double-page spread is planned in advance and only a certain number of words and illustrations can be included. The page may be laid out first, and the text added to fit the space available. In such design-led publishing, the role of the copy-editor often involves editing the author’s text to fit into the design.

Editorial roles

Copy-editor

The copy-editor is normally freelance and is expected to:

eliminate typos and inconsistencies in spelling and style
edit for sense and grammar
fact-check world events, measurements and names mentioned in the book
ensure that authors have used the appropriate language level for the intended audience
consecutively number and collate photos and artworks into a list and write briefs where required
liaise with authors over queries, issues with artworks, corrections etc.
ensure all inclusive-language and imagery guidelines have been met
check and style all URLs, addresses, telephone numbers and other bibliographic information

Proofreader

As in other types of publishing, the freelance proofreader double checks for editorial errors, ensures that the book has been correctly typeset and nothing is missing, and may collate corrections from a number of parties. The proofreader must also ensure that all illustrations are positioned correctly and numbered consecutively, with corresponding captions, and that all design features are consistently styled.

Academic journal publishing

Figure 3 shows the workflow for an academic journal.

Figure 3 shows the workflow for an academic journal.

Editorial roles

Publisher (in-house)

A publisher of journals does not commission content but manages a list of journals in a particular subject area, working with the editorial boards for each journal, which are made up of subject experts. Most journals are highly technical and specialised, focusing on particular areas of research. As well as managing the relationship with the editorial boards, the publisher is responsible for the financial and strategic planning on a list of journals.

Editor-in-chief (external)

Most journal articles are research papers. They are not commissioned but are submitted by authors who want to get their research results published. The larger publishers use online systems to manage the flow of articles through the system. An author wishing to submit to a particular journal can consult an online guide which explains in detail the format and process for submitting an article. When the paper is complete the author submits it into the system as a Word file. It is then sent to the editor-in-chief.

The editor-in-chief is an expert in their field, who works in a research capacity and edits the journal as an additional role. Only the largest journals, such as Nature, have professional editors whose full-time job is to work on the publication.

The editor-in-chief reads the paper and decides whether it is broadly appropriate. They may reject a paper outright or may pass it to an associate editor to start the peer-review process. At the end of this process the editor-in-chief makes the final decision about whether to publish the paper.

Associate/assistant editor (external)

The associate editor, like the editor-in-chief, is a subject expert. They assess the paper and, if satisfied that it is good enough, puts it through the peer-review process. This involves sending it to a number of subject peers who review the article. Depending on their comments the associate editor may have to liaise with the authors on required changes.

Editorial administrator/assistant (in-house)

The online submission system for papers is highly automated. It receives articles submitted for publication, sends them to the editor-in-chief and the associate editor, sends them out for peer review and receives comments. It automatically emails reminders and updates. The editorial assistant handles the day-to-day running of this system, mainly responding to queries and ensuring that the process is functioning smoothly. For example, this may involve checking that articles have been correctly submitted and returning them to the authors if they are incomplete.

Journals manager/Managing editor (in-house)

Once a paper has been accepted for publication it passes from the submission system into the production system, which is also automated. This is managed by the journals manager.

Because of the importance of getting research published as quickly as possible, papers tend to be published online in an unedited form as soon as they are accepted, and are described as ‘in press’. At each stage in the editorial process: at acceptance, at proof stage, when corrected, this ‘in press’ version is updated. The final version of the article is then included in a dated issue.

The journals manager is responsible for the editorial and production process on a number of journals, usually up to ten titles across a range of subjects. A paper that has been accepted is sent to a freelance copy-editor, although in some journals articles are published without being copy-edited. It is then typeset and proofs are sent to the author – again this all happens in the electronic system. Proofreading is done by the author and sometimes the editor-in-chief, but there is no professional proofreader. When authors’ corrections have been made by the typesetter the article is ready to be included in an issue which is published online and in print. Some journals are only published online, but still in the form of a properly paginated issue, with a contents list and cover.

The journals manager:

manages the copy-edit
ensures that the paper goes through the process of typesetting, proofreading and correction
liaises with authors over queries, problems with artworks, corrections etc.
liaises with the editor-in-chief to agree contents and running order of each issue for publication
agrees a print run
compiles issues and sends them to the printer
checks covers and prelims
deals with queries from authors and editorial boards
works with the journal publisher on the day-to-day running of the journal
agrees the adverts to be included in an issue with the advertising department
provides the marketing department with material required to promote the journal, for example at conferences
works with the technical teams that manage the submission and production systems

Copy-edit manager (in-house)

The copy-edit manager is responsible for recruiting freelance copy-editors, putting together style guides for copy-editors, managing the freelance workload and informing journal managers which freelance copy-editors are available.

Copy-editor (external)

The freelance copy-editor works in Word, or in some cases in an XML editing software. Authors have to follow strict guidelines when they submit their articles, supplying the correct sections in the correct format (e.g., abstract, research methods, results, references). Papers that are incorrectly submitted will be returned to the authors before they can be considered for publication.

As the format is rigid the typesetter can apply the correct styles without detailed formatting instructions. So the copy-editor has only to edit the language (authors often do not have English as their first language), apply house style and check that the references are complete. Journal articles have long reference lists and the copy-editor must ensure that all the information is present. The typesetter has software that can style the references correctly according to the style used by a particular journal.

Other roles

Typesetter

The typesetter typesets each article according to agreed styles for the journal. It provides a proof in PDF form and an XML file for publication online. The typesetter also makes author corrections and provides final files for print and online publication.

And now...

That covers the fundamentals of copy-editing.

To learn about the more intricate and complex aspects of this role, move on to the second Part of this module, Managing the publishing process, and Unit 4.

Unit 4 - Elements of a publication

In the first part of this module, we looked at the editorial process, the skills and purpose of copy-editing and proofreading, and the workflows involved in publishing a title. This second part deals with the further skills and knowledge that a copy-editor needs when:

putting together the elements of a publication (Unit 4)
managing the process and the relationships with suppliers (Unit 5)
using house style and rules (Unit 6)
copy-editing specialist subjects (Unit 7)

This module deals mainly with printed publications, but many of the processes and elements discussed here apply equally to online or digital materials.

Covers and binding

Most printed publications — books, magazines, journals — have a cover that is printed separately from the pages. The exceptions are slim books, brochures or magazines that may have a self-cover — in other words the cover is just another page of the publication and is printed at the same time on the same paper. Such books are usually saddle-stitched (see below).

Publications with very small print runs may be printed digitally, which is similar to photocopying in that pages are produced individually from a relatively small printing machine. This is how print-on-demand, self-published books from websites such as Blurb and Lulu are produced.

Most printed material, from newspapers to novels, is produced on printing presses. These are large pieces of machinery that print sheets containing a certain number of pages, usually 16 or 24. These sheets are then folded so that the pages appear in the right order. Each sheet forms a section, or signature, of the publication, and these sections are bound together in the right order (or ‘gathered’) by a variety of methods.

The extent of the book must be a multiple of the number of pages in a sheet to allow for an even working. Achieving an even working may mean including some blank pages (or adverts) at the end of the book, or adjusting the number of preliminary pages, for example by including (or removing) a half-title page.

Types of binding

The basic types of binding in common use are:

Sewn: in hard-cover and some paperback books, the signatures are folded and then sewn together. They may be glued in addition to the stitching.
Perfect bound/glued: in most paperback books, the folded edge of the signature is sliced off and the pages are glued into the cover at the spine.
Saddle-stitched: books or magazines of up to 64 pages can be stapled together through the centrefold.
Ring/wire-bound: the pages are trimmed to loose-leaf and punched with holes along the binding edge. Wire or plastic rings or spirals are used to hold the pages together.

In some books, photographs are printed separately on glossy (coated) paper and ‘tipped in’ when the book is bound. They are normally grouped in one or two sections in the book, and listed in the preliminary pages. They are not normally numbered in the pagination of the book.

Covers

A cover consists of four sides: the inside and outside front and back covers. Unless the book is saddle-stitched or wire-bound, it will also have a spine. Each of these five parts of the cover can include printed information.

The spine and outside front cover usually carry the title, author name(s), publisher’s name and/or logo and, depending on the type of book, additional information such as marketing blurbs.

The outside back cover usually carries the price, barcode, ISBN and publisher/imprint at the bottom of the page. It may also have some marketing (or back cover) copy, such as a summary of the content, quotes from favourable reviews, or mention of other titles in the same series.

Depending on the type of book, the inside front and back covers may be blank or may be printed with, for example, more marketing (or inside cover) copy, information about the author, or instructions for accessing additional online materials.

Magazines and journals are structured in a different way from books. They may include editorial content, contents lists or commercial advertising on the inside covers and the back.

Process
Decisions about the format and binding of a book are made by the publisher/commissioning editor (see the section about roles in Unit 3) who is commissioning the book, working with sales, marketing and production departments. The conventions of the market, cost, other titles in the series and the purpose of the book will guide the decisions.

A completed front cover is required early in the production process – usually before the typescript goes into production – so that an image of the cover can be used in advance promotion.

The desk editor on the book (see the section about roles in Unit 3) is usually responsible for pulling together the information required for the cover, liaising with the author, designer, the marketing department and production and checking the finished cover for typographical errors, correct placement of visuals and missing information.

The production department sources the printer.

Front matter

The first few pages of a book are, in most cases, numbered separately from the body of the text, often with roman numerals, or no page numbering at all. They are referred to as front matter or prelims (preliminary pages) and usually consist of:

title pages
imprint/title verso/bibliographical page and optional elements such as:
marketing copy (reviews, author information, publisher information)
contents list (and other lists, such as lists of illustrations or photo credits)
introduction, preface and/or foreword
dedication/acknowledgements
quotations
information about how to use the book

Process

If possible, all information for the prelims should be included in a typescript when sending it to be typeset. This is usually the responsibility of the desk editor. The contents page may be added in later, or is sometimes created by the typesetter. It is necessary to think about how the prelims will fall on right and left (recto and verso) pages and to indicate to the setter where blank pages are needed to ensure the layout is correct – for example, a title page will always be on a recto.

The main text of a book such as a novel normally starts on a recto page, but in illustrated books, educational books or books of music, for example, it may start on a verso page or follow a spread-based format.

Title pages

The half-title page is optional. It appears on a recto page, before the full-title page, and includes only the book’s title, and information about the series (title, editor) if relevant. The verso of a half-title page is normally blank.

The full-title page of a book includes:

title
subtitle (if any), starting on a new line (no colon)
series title (if any)
author name(s)
author affiliations (in academic publishing)
editor/translator name (if any)
publisher/imprint logo

It always appears on a right-hand (recto) page.

Imprint/title verso/bibliographical page

The verso of the title page may also be called the imprint page or biblio (bibliographical) page. It usually includes the following information:

Publisher’s full name and address: if the book is published under an imprint, the parent company is named here, for example: ‘Published by Omnibus Press, a division of the Wise Music Group’.
Copyright notice: usually ‘© [the author(s)]’. This may be followed by a general notice about copyright, and a declaration asserting the moral right of the author(s).
ISBN: the 13-digit international standard book number. In the UK, ISBNs are issued by Nielsen UK ISBN Agency.
Cataloguing information: the British Library and the Library of Congress compile cataloguing in publication (CIP) data from sample pages supplied by the publisher prior to publication. It cannot be altered.
Date of publication: if the book was originally published in a different edition (for example hardback), this is usually stated.
Edition number: unless the book is a first edition, the edition number may be stated. Previous editions and their dates may also be listed.
Imprint number: the imprint number changes each time a title is reprinted, even if no changes are made. It is often set out as ‘10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1’ and a number is deleted from the right with each reprint.
Name and address of typesetter and printer: this information is not always included, but the country in which the publication was printed must be stated and, if the printer is in the UK, the name must be given.

Most publishers will have a standard wording for the imprint page which can be updated for each book and inserted in the typescript

Contents page
All non-fiction books, and some works of fiction, require a contents list. This is usually headed with the word ‘Contents’ and is made up of chapter/section headings and headings of the next level down. A decision has to be made about how much detail (i.e., how many heading levels) to include in the contents. Some readers, for example school students, are more likely to use a contents list to navigate the book than an index.

The list of contents is normally prepared by either the author or the copy-editor before a typescript is sent for typesetting, but it may be compiled by the typesetter. Page numbers are left as ‘00’ until the typescript has been laid out as pages and the proofs read.

It is important to remember to include the contents in the design of the book. If chapter or section numbering is included in the contents list, this should not usually be punctuated with colons or dashes. For example:

1 Cell physiology

not

1: Cell physiology

Lists of illustrations may also be included in the prelims, especially if the images appear on a different type of paper from the rest of the pages (these may be called ‘plates’). Other types of lists that may appear in prelims include lists of maps, tables, abbreviations, contributors, chronologies or conversion tables.

Introduction, foreword, preface and instructions
An introduction is usually an explanation of the content of the main book and is included in the Arabic pagination of the main text. However, it is often the last part of the book to be written, and may need a lot of copy-editing, so it is sometimes easier to paginate it as part of the prelims, using roman numerals.

A foreword is an introduction written by someone other than the author, and the writer’s name should appear at the end of it. Forewords are generally numbered in the prelims.

A preface is a shorter note by the author which is numbered in the prelims.

Some books, for example educational books or manuals, include a ‘how to use this book’ in the prelims. This may just be text, but it often consists of a snapshot of a page with notes explaining the different features of the book. This inevitably has to be created later in the production process so that a page from the book is ready to be used as the sample.

Dedication/acknowledgements/quotations
Some authors like to include dedications, acknowledgements and/or quotations before the main text begins. These are usually set out on separate pages. Any quotations will need copyright clearance (see the section on copyright in Unit 2) and checking for accuracy.

Marketing material
This may include a short author biography, lists of other works by the same author or other books in the same series, and extracts from reviews. In trade paperbacks, marketing material may take up several pages of the prelims, usually at the very start of the book. It must be allowed for when calculating the extent of the book.

End matter

End matter is usually numbered in Arabic, following on from the main body of the book. It may include, usually in this order:

answers to questions in the book
appendices
acknowledgements
glossary
bibliography/references/further reading
endnotes
index
marketing material

It is the responsibility of the desk editor to ensure that all the required elements are included.

Answers to questions in the book

Educational books may have questions in each chapter and answers to these may appear in a section at the end of the book. The copy-editor and proofreader must check that the answers correspond correctly to the questions asked and that any page references are accurate.

Appendices

Appendices contain additional information which the reader may need to refer to and which does not sit well in the main body of the book. The content varies widely according to the subject but can include, for example – a periodic table in a chemistry book, chronologies, sample useful documents, tables of research data related to the material in the book, or the full text of a document referred to in the main text. Appendices are commonly used in reports, where the main report provides the findings and the appendices contain the detail of the methodology and other supporting evidence.

Acknowledgements

In some books the acknowledgements appear as part of the end matter rather than in the prelims.

Glossary

The glossary is normally compiled by the author while writing the book. Terms which appear in the glossary are made bold or coloured in the main text. In an eBook the mention in the text should be linked to the definition in the glossary. Sometimes definitions appear in a box on the page where the word is first mentioned, as well as or instead of being listed in the glossary at the end of the book.

Glossaries should be in alphabetical order, with the word that is being defined in bold, and no following punctuation. Note that software such as Word can be used to arrange lists in alphabetical order, but may not include the second word in the alphabetisation, so the copy-editor must check this.

Glossary entries should be copy-edited in the usual way. The copy-editor should check that all emboldened words in the text appear in the glossary, and vice versa, and that this follows publication guidelines (for example, in some children’s books glossary words are emboldened each time they appear in a book, in others only the first time). This is a section where it is particularly worth checking that entries have not been plagiarised, for example from Wikipedia.

References/bibliography/further reading

References are particularly important in academic books and journals. In lower-level educational books, children’s books or more popular works it is unnecessary to give long lists of references and detracts from the experience of reading the book.

The copy-editor must check citations in the text against the reference list to make sure that they correspond, and check that all publications referred to in the text are listed in the references.

A bibliography may simply be a list of works used in writing the book, with no textual references to these. Works may include: printed or online books; journal, newspaper and magazine articles; government and official papers; reports, etc. Websites, downloads, and audio and visual broadcasts and recordings should also be cited in the bibliography.

There are standard ways of citing references in the text and listing them in the reference list. A journal will have a particular style that it adheres to, and most publishers have a house style. A copy-editor working on a publication should be briefed on how to deal with references.

Comprehensive explanation of different referencing styles is given in Butcher’s Copy-Editing and New Hart’s Rules.

In the text, references may be given as name and date (Smith and Jones, 2004, or if there are more than two authors, Smith et al., 2004), or by using superscript numbers which refer to footnotes or endnotes. In academic publications the full reference may be given on first mention and an abbreviated version thereafter.

In reference lists/bibliographies, publications are listed alphabetically by name of first author, or in numerical order if numbered. In trade non-fiction and children’s books the bibliography is often split into categories with subheadings for books, articles, websites etc. The exact style varies according to house style but the following are examples of how different types of publication may be listed:

Alphabetical listing

Jones, A. and Smith, B. (2004) The Title of a Book, Publisher.

Jones, A. and Smith, B. (2004) ‘The title of a chapter’, in C. Patel and D. Singh The Title of a Book, pp. xx–xx, Publisher.

Smith, B. and Jones, A. (2005) ‘A journal article’, The Title of a Journal, Vol. xx, No. xx, pp. xx–xx.

Numbered listing

2. Palmer R, Howe L, Palmer P. A clinical guide to implants in dentistry. London: British Dental Association, 2008.

21. Bell G. Oro-antral fistulae and fractured tuberosities. British Dental Journal 2011; 211: 119–23.

Some educational and children’s books include a Further reading section, in which the author lists recommendations for supplementary reading to further knowledge or interest. Further reading lists usually follow the same style as the bibliography.

For more information on this topic, see the PTC’s e-learning module, Editing References.

Index

The index is best compiled at a late stage in the production of a book, when all the corrections that will affect pagination have been done, although some publishers do it at first proof stage. Time must be allowed in the production schedule for indexing and for typesetting of the index.

Some academic publishers require the author to provide an index, but in most cases, indexing is done by specialist freelance indexers. No satisfactory method of automatically producing an index currently exists. Human intervention is required to assess whether the mention of a word warrants inclusion in the index or not, and to grade entries and subentries.

Indexers can be found through the Society of Indexers (www.indexers.org.uk). An indexer must be booked well in advance and kept updated with changes in scheduling. Depending on the length of the book at least a week, maybe two, is required for compiling an index. Fees are similar to those paid to freelance copy-editors and should be agreed in advance, based on the length of the book and the complexity of index required. It is normal to estimate this on about 10 pages per hour.

Briefing an index

Indexers usually work from a PDF but may require a printout of the proofs. An indexing brief must be supplied (see Appendix 1). Most publishers have a house style for indexes, with rules about such matters as entries that are numbers, and how to deal with subentries. As a rule of thumb approximately 3 pages of index (2 columns to the page) are required per 100 pages of text, but this does depend on the level of detail required. Elision reduces the space taken up by the index, as does increasing the number of columns on the page.

Before briefing an index, consider:

How detailed and thorough an index is required? Some books contain brief summary indexes of just a page or two, others include comprehensive indexes.

Should the index include subentries and, if so, are these to be run on, on the same line as the main entry, or set out on separate lines? Are they to be in alphabetical order, or numerical (order of appearance in the book)?

Christmas jumper, 56–61

Bridget Jones’s Diary, importance in, 59

fashion peak, 56

knitted by family member, 58

OR

Christmas jumper, 56–61; fashion peak, 56; knitted by family member, 58; Bridget Jones’s Diary, importance in, 59

Should the index include sub-subentries and how are these to be displayed?

Are artworks to be indexed, and if so, are references to them distinguished, for example by use of italic page numbers?

Are glossary terms to be indexed and, if so, are references to them distinguished, for example by use of bold page numbers?

Are references to be included in the index and, if so, is this just key references or all references?

How are numbers to be indexed – as a separate section at the start of the index, or as they are spelled?

Are page numbers to be elided, and, if so, using what convention (e.g., 184–85 or 184–5)?

Checking a completed index

Indexers use specialised indexing software and can supply an index in rtf, PDF or HTML format. When the desk editor receives a completed index, they should run a spot check on a few entries, checking the following:

alphabetical order of entries and subentries
all subentries are indented
spellings, including accents, match those in the text
words are capitalised only if they are capitalised in the text
entries in slightly different forms are not repeated
strings of consecutive page numbers are grouped (e.g., 63, 64, 65, 66, 67 becomes 63–67)
entries contain enough detail to be meaningful (there is no point having entries for terms that are not explicit, such as ‘world’ in a geography book, or for adjectives)
spaces between letter blocks are marked for the designer/typesetter
if necessary, notes are included at the beginning of the index to explain, for example, italicisation or emboldening of entries

The desk editor may also need to amend entries in the index for spellings or other errors, based on any last-minute corrections or changes to the main proofs.

In an eBook the index should include live links to the relevant places in the text. Page numbers are meaningless in reflowable text.

Marketing material

The final pages of a book, particularly in fiction publishing, may contain information about other books by the same author, sometimes even a sample section or an interview with the author, or adverts for similar books from the same publisher. The desk editor must liaise with the marketing department to ensure the correct material is included.

Sometimes adverts are included to fill up blank pages that are required to create an even working.

Illustrations

Artworks

In editorial terms, artworks refers to diagrams such as graphs, maps and charts, or figurative drawings and cartoons, which are created to form part of the content. In technical and educational publishing, managing artworks is an important part of the editorial process. It is carried out by the copy-editor or the desk editor, or a combination of the two.

Very highly illustrated books such as picture books for children tend to be design-led (the words fit round the pictures rather than vice versa). This is a specialist type of publishing in which the artist is often as important as the author, and has its own process, which is not described here.

Process
Authors may either supply professional-quality artworks drawn using appropriate illustration software, or artwork roughs drawn by hand, or in software such as PowerPoint or Word. Authors should be briefed to supply their artworks or artwork roughs separately from the text, and preferably to include a list of all artworks and photos required. Any artworks inserted in a Word document by the author must be removed during copy-editing. The text of the book will normally be typeset in Adobe InDesign, and illustrations will be created in another software, usually Adobe Illustrator. PDFs, JPGs and other files can be used as artworks, but must still be supplied separately.

As part of the editing process on an illustrated book, the copy-editor must create an artwork list and may also be required to produce artwork briefs (see below).

Artwork captions must be included in the typescript as they are part of the text. The copy-editor should ensure that all artworks are referred to in the text, and add a note indicating roughly where each artwork is to appear in the text.

Depending on who is drawing the artworks, they may be included in the first proofs, or a space may be left so they can be inserted at a later stage. If they are to be inserted later it is important that the typesetter knows the size, so an appropriate space can be left. The typesetter must be sent the artwork list, as well as the briefs for any artwork they are producing, with the edited typescript.

The proofreader should check that all artworks are present, have been drawn correctly (checking them against the brief) and that they correspond to the text. For example, spellings of words in the artwork should match those in the text, and the information should not contradict the text.

Artwork drawing
Some authors draw their own finished artworks and, if they can supply them in a suitable format and quality for publication, this is acceptable and helps to avoid errors. Editable files should be supplied, preferably in Adobe Illustrator, so that changes can be made where necessary, for example to make annotation fonts consistent with the rest of the publication. See also the section on copyright in Unit 2.

Simple artworks such as graphs, pie charts and basic maps can usually be drawn by typesetters from author roughs.

More complex artworks such as three-dimensional models, figurative artwork and cartoons are often drawn by artists or designers. These might be freelancers, specialist companies or in-house designers.

Artwork numbering
All artworks need some kind of identifier so the typesetter knows where to place them. This may, for example in an illustrated novel, simply be the file name. In educational and technical books, artworks are normally numbered consecutively and referred to this way in the text: Figure 1 etc. Numbering is often according to chapter so that artworks in Chapter 1 will be Figure 1.1, Figure 1.2 etc.

Photographs may or may not be included in this numbering. The artwork list shown in Appendix 2 is intended to include details of photographs as well as artworks.

Artwork list
A list of artworks should be included with any illustrated title sent to a typesetter. Most publishers have templates for this (see Appendix 2). This should, as a minimum, list all the artworks, their identifying numbers, captions, file names and information about what is being supplied to the setter (finished artwork, brief for drawing, or an artwork previously drawn that needs amends). The size and orientation required is often included. The sample provided in Appendix 2 is an Excel template for a detailed artwork list.

Artwork briefs
In addition to the artwork list, a brief for each artwork should be supplied (see Appendix 3). This must list the identifying details (as in the artwork list) and include a visual reference – for example a rough drawn by the author, a marked-up version of a similar diagram, or some data from which to draw a graph with an indication of what it should look like. Any annotations should be typed into the artwork brief.

When briefing an artwork, the desk or copy-editor should use all the same editorial values as when copy-editing text. Capitalisation and spelling must be consistent, thought must be given to whether the meaning of the artwork is clear, and any typos or factual errors should be corrected. Graphs should have consistent axis styles and labelling. Maps usually require a compass rose and suitable scale.

Copyright
Like any other published material, artworks are covered by copyright. It is not acceptable to copy illustrations from other published material (including anything on the internet that is not specifically copyright free), or to use data from external sources, without permission. Most government data in the UK can be used if the appropriate acknowledgement is given (check the relevant website), and US government publications are not copyrighted.

Note that images uploaded by bloggers and on Wikipedia with a creative commons licence have often been taken without permission from other sources. Be certain of the provenance of an image before using it without permission.

Photographs

Photographs included in publications may come from a number of sources:

The author may provide photographs that they have taken.
A photographer may be commissioned to provide images for a specific publication.
One-off licences to download and use images can be purchased from commercial photo agencies with searchable websites (such as TopFoto, Alamy, Getty Images, Science Photo Library) for upwards of £50 each.
Royalty-free images for repeated use can be purchased from stock agencies such as Shutterstock and Adobe Stock, for about £10 each.
Free photographs can be obtained from organisations (company press offices for example), or agencies such as NASA or the US Library of Congress which make their image libraries available to the public.

Any other images downloaded from the internet or found in a Google image search cannot be used in publications, because this will infringe copyright, and because they will not be high enough resolution. Authors will often insist that images from Wikipedia, for example, are usable, but this is not the case. Even if the image is uploaded with a creative commons licence it is important to check that it was uploaded by its copyright owner, and not by someone who took it from elsewhere on the internet.

‘In the public domain’ does not mean ‘widely available’, but that copyright has expired.

Quality
Photographs for print publication must have a resolution of at least 300 dpi at the physical size at which they will be printed. This can be checked in software such as Adobe Photoshop. Photographs for publication on the internet must be 72 dpi.

Author or amateur photographs may suffer from quality issues such as poor colour balance, over-exposure or poor composition. The content of the photo may still make it worth using, but the two must be weighed up. Photographs always look brighter and more colourful on the screen than they do when printed in a publication.

Process
The number of photographs to be included in a publication will normally be specified by the person who commissions it. A book will have a photo budget that corresponds to the number of images and where they are expected to come from, i.e., their cost.

The author may suggest the photos they want included in the book, particularly if they form part of the content, for example in a science textbook or cookery book. Beware of authors requesting additional photos at proof stage, which may push a title over budget.

The copy-editor or desk editor should compile a list of all the photos in the book (this can be part of the artwork list, as in Appendix 2), including rough sizes, and send this to the typesetter with the typescript, whether or not the photos are available at that time. The typesetter may need to leave gaps for any photos that are to be supplied later.

Any photographs that are not supplied by the author or commissioned from a photographer have to be found by a photo researcher. This is a specialist task that may be outsourced to a freelance photo researcher, carried out by the typesetter, or done by in-house photo researchers. The desk editor must supply a brief to the researcher, giving sufficient detail about each image required, but not being so specific that the researcher cannot find anything appropriate. For example, a brief needs to be more specific than ‘a girl’, but less specific than ‘a 12-year-old blonde girl wearing green shorts and riding a bike in Paris’. A more useful brief would be: ‘a young teenage girl, European, engaged in physical activity’. Some publishers have collections of royalty-free photos that can be searched by desk editors.

Lower-resolution or ‘comp’ images, with watermarks, are often inserted into proofs in the first instance and replaced by the high-resolution (hi-res) images at the final stage. Downloading of a hi-res image from a photo agency requires payment.

Apart from the resolution of the image, all of the above applies to photographs used in electronic publications or online.

Design issues
In a highly illustrated book, a magazine, or a cover, where a designer is using photographs creatively as part of the layout, it is helpful for the photo researcher or the editor briefing the researcher to liaise with the designer. The design may require images with particular orientations, photographs with a white background to allow cut-outs, or some lateral thinking in finding visually interesting images.

Copyright and legal issues with photographs
It is important to obtain the right licence for the use of an image, whether you are using it in print, online or in a digital product. For example, the publisher may wish to reuse photographs in sister publications, or a book may be converted to an eBook or some other digital format. All publication formats must be agreed with the provider of the photograph.

If photographs have been taken by a non-professional such as the author, it is important to be aware of issues such as model release. If a child (under 18) appears recognisably in a photograph, permission to publish the image must be obtained from the child’s parent or guardian. In North America, privacy law requires that the same permission must be obtained from any person who is photographed. The UK does not have this legal restriction but there is increasing nervousness about model release. Photographing in public places is permissible, as long as the photographer does not cause any harassment, but in privately owned places, including shopping centres, airports and museums, you must seek permission. Some models may object to their image being shared under the Data Protection Act (2018) or the UK GDPR – valid consent should usually be obtained, although there are exceptions to this rule. For the latest on guidelines, it is worth checking the Information Commissioner’s Office Guide to Data Protection.

Works of art

In order to reproduce a work of art such as a painting or sculpture, it is necessary not only to obtain a photograph of the work, and permission to use the photograph, but also to clear copyright from both artist and owner. Works of art remain in copyright for 70 years after the death of the artist. An organisation called DACS manages the rights of visual artists, and reproduction must be cleared through this agency for any work that is in copyright (www.dacs.org.uk/licensing-works). It is often necessary to clear permission with the owner of the work separately.

For more information on working with illustrations, see the PTC e-learning module, Editing Illustrations.

Tables

Tables should be numbered in the same way as artworks and should have short captions explaining their content. Table captions conventionally go above the table, but this depends on house style and design. Each table should be referred to in the text by its number. Authors should not assume that a table will appear in the run of the text and refer to it as ‘the table below’.

The typesetter should be given a general instruction about placement of tables: do they have to go exactly where placed in the typescript, or on the page or double-page spread where they are first referred to? If they have to go exactly where mentioned in the text, this can cause layout issues – a table near the bottom of a page may have to be split, or a large blank space will have to be left so the table can start at the top of the next page. Very large tables may be best placed in an appendix, particularly if they are so wide that they have to take landscape format on the page.

Tables should contain more than one row or column – a table that is just a list should be turned into a box or artwork.

Formatting tables

Tables inserted using the table functions in Word will convert into InDesign. However, any formatting such as left or right alignment done in Word will be lost when the table is typeset, so special layout instructions should be added in a note to the designer. It is counterproductive, for example, to align items in different columns using tabs or returns in the typescript as this will reflow when typeset.

Column headings should be distinguished in some way, usually by using bold type.

There may be a hierarchy of column headings, with the top row of headings spanning several lower headings. This can be indicated by merging cells in the table, with an instruction to the typesetter to insert a rule where needed.

The design should dictate whether text in columns is left or right aligned or centred, and whether the column headings and text in each cell align to the top or bottom of the box. Columns of figures should align on the decimal point and the proofreader should check this.

Authors sometimes supply tables copied from elsewhere as images. In this case the copy-editor must rekey the table, and also query the copyright.

Notes, including the source of the data, should appear immediately below the table, often in smaller type. Ensure that it is clear to the typesetter that this text is part of the table and must stay with it.

Editing tables

In tables of data, the copy-editor and proofreader should check that numbers in columns or rows add up as indicated (for example the ‘Total’ column is a sum of the figures in the other columns). It is also important to look for obvious anomalies, or for descriptions of the data in the text that contradict the actual data in the table.

Capital letters should be kept to a minimum in both captions and column headings. It is best to use an initial capital for the first word only, but again this depends on house style.

Bullets can be used in tables but excessive punctuation should be avoided. Full points at the end of each entry are usually unnecessary.

Column headings should be consistent in style and as short as possible. They should include units where relevant, in parentheses or (science titles) following a solidus. This is tidier than repeating the unit in each cell. They should also indicate if the figures are all multiplied by a factor – for example the figures in a column may be in thousands or millions. (If this applies to the whole table it can be indicated in the caption instead.) ‘Ditto’ signs should not be used, but the information repeated.

Running heads and feet

Running heads and feet (headers and footers) are part of what designers call the ‘page furniture’. They are repeated at the head and/or foot of each page, in smaller type than the text. Conventions about what appears in the running heads and feet depend on the type of book and the publisher, but the folio (page number) is almost always present. They can also include:

title of book
subtitle of book
section head
chapter head
author name (especially in anthologies)
series title
URL of publisher

The running heads and feet are normally inserted by the typesetter according to instructions supplied with the typescript. The headers and footers that can be inserted automatically in Word should not be used unless the book is being published in Word. Part of the proofreader’s job is to check that the headers and footers on every page of the publication are correct.

Footnotes

Footnotes should be avoided, except in academic publications. An alternative is to provide endnotes – including all the notes in one section at the end of the book. This is less intrusive and makes layout easier. Either way, the author should provide the notes as a separate list, and not try to insert them on the relevant page of the typescript.

Publishers will have a house style for notes. Endnotes are usually numbered in sequence, or with reference to the page number of the book. Footnotes may use superscript numbers, lower-case letters or symbols. If footnotes appear on each page, the typesetter has to ensure they are on the same page as the textual reference. The copy-editor must check that each textual mark has a corresponding note, and vice versa, and the proofreader must double-check this.

References sometimes appear as footnotes instead of as a reference list.

Equations and symbols

Equations can appear either in-line with the text, or displayed on a separate line. Symbols such as Greek letters, multiplication signs and equivalence arrows can be inserted using the Insert Symbol facility in Word. It is important to use Unicode-compliant fonts such as Symbol or Times New Roman. Fonts such as Wingdings can cause problems in typesetting.

Equations which take up more depth than one line are usually displayed. It is inadvisable to lay out multiline equations with the standard formatting tools in Word – the Equation Editor facility must be used. Equations created in Equation Editor can be imported as images by the typesetter. If the title contains a large number of multiline equations, it may be better for the author/copy-editor to use specialised software such as MathType or LaTeX.

Variables are usually italic, chemical formulas roman, and vectors bold. There is usually a thin space between numbers and units, and before and after symbols such as plus, minus and equals signs in equations.

On the page, equations should be aligned on the equals sign or the equivalence arrow, or they may be aligned left depending on the context.

The copy-editor should check that equations balance, that there are no obvious errors in mathematics and that textual references to the equations agree with the equations themselves. If the equations are numbered, the copy-editor should check that the numbering is sequential, and that any textual reference to these is correct. Equation numbers are usually ranged right.

In electronic products such as eBooks and websites equations must be inserted as images, or they will reflow and become nonsensical.

Quotations

Quotations of fewer than about 50 words should appear in-line with the text unless they are displayed for a specific purpose. Quotations of more than 50 or 60 words are usually displayed separately, starting on a new line, indented and sometimes in a different type size from the main text, like this:

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur.

(www.lipsum.com)

Quotation marks may be single or double depending on house style. Quotes within quotes use the opposite style of marks to the main quote. Displayed quotations do not use quotation marks. Quotations should not be in italic.

A source (usually in parentheses) should be included for each quotation. The full reference may be given here or in a reference list/footnote. House style for references should be followed.

The copy-editor may be asked to check that quotations are correct, or this may be done by the author. If more than a few words of a text that is in copyright are quoted, permission should be sought by the publisher. The copy-editor should highlight any quotations where copyright may be an issue, listing them in a separate table. Copyright law is complex, but any citation of any published work should be taken note of. Even very short quotations from song lyrics or poems may require permission. Extracts from novels, works of non-fiction, websites, newspaper articles, speeches and so on are likely to need clearance.

Accents

It is the job of the copy-editor to check that the correct accents have been used and to insert them when they are missing. Common accents such as acute, grave, umlaut and tilde can be inserted using keystrokes – search how to do this in your particular operating system.

Anglicised words which are not in italic do not have to include accents but may do so by convention or to help pronunciation. House style, a good dictionary or the New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors will give guidance about which words are normally anglicised. Words that are fully capitalised do not normally take accents.

Unit 5 - Managing the publishing process

Roles in the publishing process

The roles involved in producing different types of publication vary between companies, as do exact job titles, but are essentially as follows:

The publication is commissioned, acquired or managed by a publisher, editor or commissioning editor.
The finished typescript is passed to a desk editor/junior editor/production editor/project editor who manages the process through from this point to printed publication.
Copy-editing, proofreading and indexing are carried out by freelancers, managed by the desk editor.
The design and layout are the responsibility of the design department, with whom the desk editor liaises.
Typesetting, printing and eBook production are managed by the production department, with whom the desk editor liaises.
The desk editor also communicates with picture researchers (where necessary), editorial assistants, authors, sensitivity and expert readers, other contributors and the marketing department.
Editorial assistants carry out administrative editorial tasks for the desk editor, such as checking off proof corrections, clearing copyright and sending proofs to authors.

Working with freelance copy-editors and proofreaders

Copy-editing and proofreading are rarely carried out by in-house desk editors. Most publishers have reduced their overheads by slimming down their in-house editorial staff and outsourcing the bulk of the work. They have a list of freelance copy-editors and proofreaders, each with specialist subjects, skills or experience. The Chartered Institute of Editing and Proofreading (CIEP, http://www.ciep.uk/) has an online Directory of Editorial Services which can be searched for members with particular specialities. Publishers looking for freelancers expect prior experience, preferably in-house, and may send a test to prospective copy-editors and proofreaders, to check that they have the required skills.

When sending work to a freelance copy-editor or proofreader the desk editor should initially:

provide a brief outline of the job
agree a deadline
agree a fee

The brief sent with the job should include:

an outline of the project and the readership level
detailed instructions on the editing/proofreading tasks required
instructions about any formatting of the document that is needed
instructions about dealing with any artworks and photographs
instructions about dealing with copyright permissions
information about any quirks of the typescript or author
details of house style
instructions about how to deal with author queries (contact the author direct, contact the publisher, insert a query in the typescript/on the proof)
instructions about design and layout issues or any other intervention that is required such as answer checking, cutting the extent of the title or making global changes to terminology
instructions on how to deal with any sensitivity concerns
a previous edition of the publication if available

Once a completed job is returned, the desk editor must check that it has been finished according to the brief and resolve any queries before sending it to the typesetter/production department. It is helpful at this stage to feed back to the freelance copy-editor/proofreader, especially if they are new.

Working with designers

Print publications

It is the designer’s job to create the overall look of the publication, including the cover, the ‘page furniture’, layout and structure of the pages, typefaces and style of illustrations. The information the designer needs, about potential readership, competitor products, format of the publication, structure and sample content, usually comes from the editorial department – the commissioning editor and the desk editor. It makes the designer’s job much easier if the editorial team provides a clear brief and a comprehensive edited text sample with which to work.

Designers may be in-house, part of an external design company, or freelance. This section assumes that the designer is only designing, not typesetting, the publication.

The most important function of design is to create a usable product that is attractive to and appropriate for the customer. In the case of a publication this means that it must be readable: the eye should be able to follow the flow of text easily, it should be obvious where to start reading on the page, text should be legible and not printed over a busy illustration or dark background.

Understanding the way in which designers work, the constraints of the software they use, and the basic design rules, can help to make the editor/designer relationship more productive and the product better. For example, an editor working with a designer should:

Remember that design is subjective. When asking the designer to change something it is important to give a reason more relevant to the product and the reader than ‘I don’t like it’, or ‘green is horrible’.
Understand the limitations the designer is working with. If the type size increases, fewer words will fit on the page. Portrait-shaped illustrations are harder to fit into a page design than landscape-shaped images. Very long words do not fit well into a design created for snappy headings.
Respect the designer’s knowledge. They will know more than the editor, author or marketing department about readability of different typefaces, how wide a column of text can be before the lines becomes hard to read, how colours work together, what the software can do, hyphenation and spacing settings and so on.
Ensure that that the text sample provided for the design is representative of the book as a whole. For example, it is unhelpful to provide a sample in which all the A-heads are three words long if other parts of the book include ten-word A-heads. The sample should contain an example of every feature that will appear in the book and ideally placeholder images or artworks for space and positioning purposes.
Refrain from asking the impossible. If extra words are inserted into a paragraph that is already a tight fit it will create an extra line which must be accommodated somewhere. If the word count for a page is 500 words the designer cannot miraculously squeeze in an extra 200 words. A designer reported that a particularly challenging brief she had been given was ‘I like it but can you make it a really bright khaki green?’ Here are some hilarious examples of similar comments.
Avoid repeated changes to a brief, or new corrections. Ensure that the brief is complete before it goes to the designer, and that all feedback is presented in one batch.
Stick to editorial input. It is not helpful if editors (or authors) try to design samples themselves using Word or other software. This is a waste of everyone’s time. Equally the designer should not start editing the text.
Make instructions clearer when relevant by using a small diagram instead of providing complex descriptions in words. Make sure comments on proofs are legible.

Electronic publications

The same basic rules apply to working with designers on electronic products or websites. There are some differences:

typefaces which will work across different delivery platforms for eBooks. The space available for text on a website may be very limited, and control of how a website appears in different browsers or on mobile devices may also impose limits.
Web and digital designers tend to work in a more fluid way. They have to think in more dimensions. Design and technical development of a digital product often go hand in hand, so that it is a process of evolution, with regular review stages

Working with typesetters

Complex, highly illustrated books and magazines may be laid out by designers, but the majority of books are typeset by large typesetting companies, many of which are now offshore – in India, or the Middle or Far East.

When desk editors or copy-editors work with designers, the interaction tends to be one-to-one, even if the designer is not in-house, and a working relationship is built up. In the case of typesetters, the production department may manage the handover of projects, so there is no direct communication between the desk/copy-editor and the typesetter. And if work is being sent to a large company, it could be given to any one of a number of operators. There is therefore unlikely to be any ongoing, personal relationship between editor and typesetter. This means that it is even more important to spell out all instructions clearly, and not to make any assumptions about prior knowledge or familiarity with the product.

Typesetting stage

Every project sent to a typesetter must include:

the text files for typesetting, including prelims and end matter as far as possible (or instructions to leave space for what is still to come)
a detailed brief, usually including an InDesign template from the designer
a list of all artworks and photos
clear artwork briefs
any other materials that are required for the book, such as files for artworks sourced from elsewhere and photo files if available at this stage

The brief should include house-style instructions about, for example, how many lines of text should appear beneath a heading before a page break is permitted, and whether tables and artworks must appear exactly where they are referred to in the text, or just on the same double-page spread as the text reference.

Proof-correction stage

Most publishers prefer corrections to be marked up on a PDF using the tools in a PDF editor or viewer such as PDF-Xchange or Adobe Acrobat Reader. Not only is this a faster delivery method but it also saves on printing and postage costs, since the vast majority of proofreading is now outsourced to freelancers. Although rarer, some publishers still prefer to send out hard-copy proofs. Corrections should be clearly written in coloured pen: blue for author/proofreader changes and red for typesetter errors, such as incorrect layout. Black pen may be used if proofs are to be scanned black and white, but it is more easily missed. Pencil should never be used.

The proofreader, and the desk editor managing a project, should be aware of the knock-on effect of corrections that alter the space taken up by text or illustrations. If extra text is inserted, or chunks of material are deleted, instructions should be given about how the layout impact is to be managed.

If the typesetter has struggled to make pages fit and has left inappropriate layout or gaps, the proofreader/desk editor should suggest ways to deal with this, depending on the requirements of the project. For example, moving a table or diagram to another page may help pages to fit. Cutting or adding a word or two may allow the typesetter to get rid of widows or orphans. A ‘filler’ image (preferably royalty-free) can be used to fill excessive white space at the end of a chapter.

Final stages

There are at least two proof stages in producing a book, and often more. Once all corrections are complete and approved by the desk editor, the typesetter provides the files to go to the printer, including hi-res photos, artworks and all prelims and end matter.

If the cover has been produced by a designer it may be supplied separately.

The typesetting process is outlined in Figure 1.

Figure 1 The typesetting process

Working with printers

In a large publishing company, contact with printers usually occurs through the production department. In smaller organisations, or companies that are not publishers but are producing printed materials, editors, designers or other staff may deal directly with printers.

Today a lot of printing has moved offshore. The number of printers in the UK has declined, as with other types of industry, and work is often sent to places such as Italy, Spain, China and the Middle East.

Printing is a technical process. It is also expensive, and if it goes badly wrong books may have to be pulped. Careful communication is therefore essential. It is important not to assume that a printer understands what you want, and to ask questions if the process is unclear. Printers tend to speak in jargon, but have a huge amount of technical knowledge and can give advice if necessary.

As described in the section on binding in Unit 4, most printing is done on large printing presses. These take huge sheets of paper containing multiple pages (usually 16 or 24) which are then folded to create a section (signature) of a book.

The cost of printing depends upon the type of paper used, whether the book is colour or mono, its format, the type of binding and the print run. Setting up the printing press is time-consuming and expensive, and the more copies that are printed the cheaper the unit cost becomes.

If the book is mono then only black ink is required. Colour can be printed in two ways:

Process colour in which there are four plates, each printing one of cyan, magenta, yellow and black (CMYK). Combinations of these four inks make up all the colours in most books. If you look at a printed page through a magnifying lens you can see the dots of the four different colours.

Pantone or ‘special’ colour in which the colour is introduced using a coloured ink. These provide a far greater colour range than process colour, but of course only one coloured ink can be used at a time. They are normally used either in two-colour publications, that rely on black and one other colour, or as an extra colour on top of process-colour printing. An obvious example of this is women’s magazines that use an extra colour such as gold or a vivid pink or green on their covers

The printing process

The printer is supplied with an electronic file from which to print. Today this is normally a print PDF made from the file the designer/typesetter created (usually in InDesign). The designer must ensure that the file is supplied in a format suitable for printing:

correct overprint rules must be used in any illustrations
all the photos and other colours must be CMYK rather than red/green/blue (RGB) so that the printer can make separations for the printing plates
photos and other illustrations must be a suitable resolution for printing (usually 300 dpi)
where photos or colours bleed off the page a suitable bleed of several millimetres must have been added
the pages should include crop marks which indicate where they are to be trimmed
the correct number of pages must be included for an even working, which may mean including blank pages at the end

It is important that there are no errors in the file as correcting them after this stage is expensive.

The printer must also be supplied with instructions about paper, binding, print run and where copies are to be delivered.

Once the printer has received and processed the file, proofs are usually supplied to the publisher in electronic format for checking against the print PDF. At this stage it is too late to correct minor errors such as typos or missing full points. If a serious error is found a corrected page may be supplied but the purpose of these proofs is to check that nothing has gone amiss in the printer’s processing of the file.

Some publishers still prefer to check print proofs on paper rather than on screen. Laser proofs (basic hard-copy proofs printed on a laser printer) are intended for content checking only – they do not show final colour, print quality, image quality or paper finish.

It is expensive to stop a printing press, so if the print quality of a book is critical (for example an art book), staff from the publisher may be present during printing to check wet proofs as they come off the press. However, the automation of printing means that the appearance of colours is tightly controlled by computer systems in the press.

Printed sheets are folded before binding and at this stage running sheets (printed pages that are folded but not yet bound) are usually supplied to the publisher for a final check. Errors in imposition or faults in printing may be picked up at this stage.

Once the book has been bound and trimmed, advance copies are often supplied to the publisher for a final check. The printing process is outlined in Figure 2.

Figure 2 The printing process

Figure 2 The printing process

Scheduling

Scheduling is at the core of any publishing project. Publication dates are commercially critical, whether for a recipe book published for the Christmas market, a textbook that must be available for the start of the school year, or a periodical that is published quarterly. Marketing for a new title begins months before the publication date, and if the title slips to a later date this may affect sales.

A publication date is normally agreed by the commissioning editor, the marketing department and possibly other interested parties before the typescript is delivered by the author. Once the typescript is with the desk editor a detailed schedule is worked out, by either the desk editor or the production department. Time must be allowed for each stage in the publishing process:

design
copy-editing
picture research
typesetting and drawing of artworks
proofreading
correction of proofs
checking of proofs (there may be three or more proof stages depending on the level of correction and changes requested by the author)
approval by any external reviewers who have an interest in the publication
indexing
printing
delivery of printed copies
creation of eBook and/or audiobook

Unit 6 - Style and house style

Most publishers have a house-style guide which specifies the conventions used in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, capitalisation and so on. This can range in length from a few pages to a slim book. The purpose of house style is to impose a professional consistency and to avoid time-wasting in deciding every time it arises whether, for example, to refer to ‘World War II’ or ‘the Second World War’.

It is good practice for the copy-editor to keep an alphabetical list of such words as they arise in a work that is being edited – for example whether the spelling ‘A-level’ or ‘A Level’, ‘childcare’ or ‘child care’, ‘foetus’ or ‘fetus’ is being used. It does not matter to the reader how such words are spelt, but it is distracting if spelling varies within a publication.

When editing a work of fiction, the editor should keep a list of dates, characters and their descriptions, and a timeline, as a way of checking that the author has not made errors in continuity.

In addition to a house style, some publishers will refer the copy-editor to a particular dictionary (e.g., Collins or Oxford), and/or to reference works such as New Harts Rules and the New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors. These outline certain conventions and rules.

The Guardian and Observer style guide, available online, is updated regularly and is comprehensive, pragmatic and an entertaining read.

Consistency

Consistency is all. Maintaining consistency in spelling, punctuation and style within a publication is more important than personal preference or overall house style. It is distracting for the reader and looks unprofessional if text contains randomly capitalised words, different spellings of the same word, contradictions in fact and other inconsistencies. A working copy-editor becomes accustomed to taking mental note of such differences and checking them throughout a publication.

But it is essential not to obsess about the detail at the cost of the bigger picture. A copy-editor should not spend their time agonising about whether to change ‘different from’ to ‘different to’, or deciding three-quarters of the way through a book to change the spelling of a particular recurring term. A proofreader should not change the spelling of a word for aesthetic reasons if it is consistent throughout the text. It is much more important that the text is comprehensible, factually correct and makes sense as a whole.

The rest of this unit on house style looks in more detail at the different elements of style, expanding on the coverage in earlier units.

Spelling

It goes without saying that words should be spelt correctly. But what is correct? To start with, a decision must be made about whether to use British or US spelling, and this of course depends on the readership. Organisations should also choose whether to use ‘s’ or ‘z’ spelling (‘fertiliser’ or ‘fertilizer’, ‘sympathise’ or ‘sympathize’), and whether to hyphenate or run-on terms such as ‘cooperative’ (‘co-operative’) and ‘wellbeing’ (‘well-being’).

Some words have alternative spellings (e.g., ‘judgement’ or ‘judgment’, ‘focused’ or ‘focussed’). It is common practice to keep a list of the preferred spelling of such terms to be used within an organisation. Lists of specialist terms in particular subjects should also be kept, including difficult words that come into the public domain (such as ‘Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease’, or ‘Eyjafjallajökull’).

Publishers may have a particular dictionary that they use by preference as part of their house style.

Use of bold and italic

Bold type is most often used to emphasise key terms in the text – perhaps those that are defined in a glossary – or to make certain words stand out, for example in a bulleted list. Certain mathematical symbols (e.g., vectors and tensors) are conventionally emboldened.

Italic is conventionally used for:

titles of publications, including books, newspapers, journals and long poems that are like a book in themselves (but short stories, poems, chapters etc. are roman with quotes)
titles of plays, operas, ballets, films, television programmes, albums, paintings and other works of art
foreign words and phrases, which should also carry the correct accents and other conventions (for example German nouns take capital letters)
names of the parties in legal cases, but the ‘v.’ is roman (Smith Bloggs)
names (but not models) of ships (HMS Belfast), trains (Flying Scotsman) and aircraft (The Spirit of St. Louis)
space: crewed spacecraft (Space Shuttle Challenger, Lunar Module Eagle), but not mission names (Apollo 11, Cassini) and all uncrewed craft (probes, robots, rockets, rovers), which are roman
variables in science and maths (e.g., x, y), and species and genera in biology (e.g., Fagus sylvatica)
stage directions in plays
emphasis (It is essential that you whisk the egg whites to stiff peaks) although some authors overdo this. Italic should be used sparingly unless it is part of the experience of reading, for example in certain novels
(circa)

Italic should not be used for:

the terms e.g., and i.e., even though they come from the Latin. Other terms which tend not to be italicised, but depend on house style, are vs, ibid., vice versa, et al., in vitro, in vivo, per capita, per se, status quo, ad hoc, ceteris paribus
religious books such as the Bible, Koran or Torah
foreign proper nouns (São Paulo, Fellini) and terms that have become anglicised (for example aperitif, ersatz, café)
quotations (despite what Word suggests) – large chunks of italic text are ugly and hard to read

Capitalisation

The contemporary style is to use capitalisation as little as possible. It should be used for proper nouns – names of places, people, trade names, publications etc. – but for little else. Note the following:

It is common to capitalise titles (Pope Francis, Queen Victoria, President Clinton, Professor Sen) but not ‘the pope’, ‘the queen’, ‘the president’ or ‘the professor’.
North, south, etc. should be capitalised only when they are parts of proper names or clearly delineated political areas, so South Africa, but the south of Britain. The exception to this is the global South vs the North in development or geopolitical contexts.
Names of seasons, common names of plants and animals (wildebeest, columbine), words such as government and parliament should not be capitalised.
Trade names (Apple, Microsoft, Lego), and historical and geological periods (Industrial Revolution, Black Death, Carboniferous) are capitalised.
Church is capitalised when it is an institution such as the Church of England, but not when it is a building (‘they went to church’).
In science it is necessary to make a decision about capitalisation of terms such as laws (Newton’s laws of motion or Newton’s Laws of Motion). It is helpful to have a house-style rule that applies universally to such terms.
Words such as conservative or liberal are capitalised only when they refer to a political party.
It is bad practice, and looks amateurish at best, to capitalise words in the text which seem important (e.g., ‘Garden Waste should be recycled in the Brown bin. Glass, Paper and Cardboard will be collected in the Blue bin.’)
Capitalisation should be consistent in bulleted lists. If the items are full sentences they should start with a capital letter, but if they are just short phrases or words lower-case letters can be used.
If the abbreviation of a term is in capitals, the term itself can still be in lower case (e.g., the abbreviation for joules is J, the abbreviation for human immunodeficiency virus is HIV).

Punctuation

The most important function of punctuation is to make meaning clear. There are also a number of conventions and house-style choices around its use:

Commas change the meaning of sentences. They should be used to separate clauses in sentences (This explains, the argument goes, why women are more empathic but men have a better sense of direction.), in direct speech (Mary said, ‘I can’t believe Father is phoning me about this again!’) and with ‘However’ (However, I decided not to answer the phone.) Some writers use more commas than others. This is a matter of personal preference – the copy-editor should not waste time inserting or deleting commas unless they are incorrectly placed or the meaning is unclear without them.
A comma alone should not be used to link two main clauses – use a full stop, semicolon or en/em dash instead.
A style decision has to be made about whether to include a comma before ‘and’ in lists – the so-called ‘Oxford comma’ because the style of Oxford University Press is to include it. Whether ‘John, Paul, and George’ or ‘John, Paul and George’ is used is a matter of style and should be consistent. However, it is not possible to have a rule that a comma is never used before ‘and’ as it may be required to make the meaning clear. I cannot better the Guardian and Observer example which compares:
I dedicate this book to my parents, Martin Amis and JK Rowling
Semicolons are rarely used correctly. Their correct use is to separate main clauses that have different subjects and are not linked by a conjunction. They can also be used to separate items in a complex list that uses commas as a lower level of separation. They should not be used at the end of items in bulleted lists. In educational or instructional texts, it is better to use shorter sentences and avoid the use of semicolons.
Hyphens should be used to avoid ambiguity (e.g., deep-blue sea), and in compounds that are used attributively (e.g., long-term drought) rather than predicatively (e.g., in the long term). When finding and changing such terms remember to search for both hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions. It is important to ensure that they are used consistently within a publication.
Some house styles favour contraction of terms such as wellbeing and childcare, while others use more hyphenation (well-being, child-care). New Hart’s Rules and other manuals give guidance on whether words should be hyphenated or not (e.g., pre-war but postwar).
In science, hyphenation conventions apply to certain terms, for example X-ray but T cell. Hyphens may also be used for clarification (for example un-ionise does not mean the same as unionise), in chemical formulas to indicate bonds, and in terms such as carbon-14.
An en rule is a short dash (the width of the letter N) and is used to separate dates, times or numbers (e.g., 1914–18). It is also used in place of a hyphen when two parts of a compound do not modify one another (e.g., cost–benefit ratio, Leeds–Liverpool Canal), and as a dash in the text – with a space either side.
An em rule is a longer dash (the width of the letter M) and can also be used as a dash in text—but without spaces.
Both en and em rules can be typed using a combination of keystrokes. Google how to do this in your particular operating system.
Apostrophes are frequently misused. They should be used in possessives (Simon’s pen) and to indicate missing letters (it’s for it is). They should never be used in plurals (CDs not CD’s, apples not apple’s), dates (1960s not 1960’s) or in possessives such as yours.
In British style, full stops are commonly used in abbreviations that truncate a word (such as etc.) but not in contractions (Mr, St, vs).
Square brackets are used to indicate words inserted in a quotation.
Round brackets are correctly referred to as ‘parentheses’ and curly brackets as ‘braces’.
Correct punctuation of text in parentheses is that the full point should come before the closing parenthesis if the whole sentence is in parentheses.
Double punctuation should be avoided. For example, a quotation which ends with a question mark should not be followed by a full point outside the quote.
Exclamation marks should only be used in exclamations and commands, not for emphasis or to patronise the reader.
The ellipsis (…) should consist of three dots only (note, an ellipsis is not three full stops). House style should dictate whether a word space is left either side of an ellipsis or not, and whether it is punctuated with a full point at the end of a sentence.
e.g. and i.e. are conventionally punctuated with full points, although this depends on house style. Beware of authors using i.e. (that is) when they mean e.g. (for example).
House style should dictate whether single or double quotation marks are used. Normally single quote marks are used by preference, with double quote marks for quotations or speech within quotations.

Grammar, language and common errors

The main purpose of copy-editing is to make the text readable, professional and appropriate for the readership. The level of intervention required depends on the ability of the writer, and how well the text meets the brief and the needs of the reader. At its most challenging, copy-editing involves working out what the writer was trying to say and expressing this for them, while maintaining the original style and structure as much as possible.

Different types of writing demand different approaches. Academics use indirect language and complex sentence structure which would be quite inappropriate in an instruction manual or on a website. Authors who are not professional writers can tend to ‘over-write’, dressing up their meaning in convoluted sentences and unnecessarily difficult words. However complex an idea, it should be possible to express it in simple direct language.

Text is easier to read if both sentences and paragraphs are short. This is particularly important on websites, where large chunks of text look daunting.

Text that is designed purely to convey information. For example, marketing copy, instructional text in print or online, letters, brochures, should be broken up into concise chunks, using bullet points and subheadings to steer the reader.
Newspapers, except in more lengthy editorial material, employ a structure in which the story is summarised in the headline, expanded in the standfirst (introduction in larger type), expanded a little further in the first paragraph or two and revealed in detail only beyond this point. This engages the reader and draws them into the story. Magazine articles use a similar structure.
Educational books must have a language level appropriate for the age of the readership. Sentence structures and vocabulary can become more complex as the readership level progresses, but it is still helpful to use subheadings, frequent paragraph breaks and bullet lists.
Academic texts, particularly in the social sciences, have an accepted style that is indirect, and uses passive verb forms and technical terms. Hiding the meaning in unnecessarily convoluted language is still undesirable.
Fiction writers have their own style and do not expect to be heavily edited, but clumsy language that obscures meaning, or poor grammar, should still be pointed out. It is always difficult for the author of a piece to see it with fresh eyes and notice the weaknesses. A good editor will help the author to hone the work to the best possible result.

The copy-editor should be briefed on the level of editing required. Bear in mind the following:

It is best to delete adverbs which do not add any clarification to a sentence, such as ‘certainly’.
Delete words such as ‘very’, ‘many’ and ‘often’ where possible – it makes a sentence stronger.
Rewrite sentences that start with a subclause unrelated to the subject. For example, from the back cover of a book: ‘Set in Japan in 1799, a young clerk, Jacob de Zoet, is about to embark on a strange adventure…’. The book, not the clerk as implied by this wording, is set in Japan in 1799.
Look out for homophones – words that sound the same but have different meanings and spellings, such as wet/whet, led/lead, principle/principal.
Ensure that correct verb and noun spellings are used (e.g., in British as opposed to US spelling ‘practice’ is a noun, ‘practise’ is the verb form, ‘licence’ is the noun and ‘license’ the verb).
Avoid mixing singular and plural: ‘The BBC has said that they will…’ should be ‘The BBC has said that it will…’.
Avoid mixing tenses in a sentence, or indeed a paragraph.
Use the correct pronouns. For example, organisations are not people and do not take ‘who’.
The grocer’s apostrophe (apple’s and pear’s) is a growing problem. As stated above, apostrophes are not needed in plurals, even if these are acronyms (HGVs, DVDs).

Grammar and clear use of language

The level of editing required will vary from author to author and subject to subject. For example, in copy-editing fiction or academic writing it is inappropriate to change the author’s style. But material that has not been written by professional writers, for example educational books, publicity material and copy for websites, often requires hands-on editing to clarify the meaning. It is best to keep sentences short, avoid multiple subclauses and use simple language. In badly written text, the copy-editor should do the following:

Replace unnecessarily long or pompous words: ‘idea’ not ‘paradigm’, ‘later’ not ‘subsequently’, ‘began’ not ‘commenced’.
Replace flowery metaphors or puns with clear simple language: ‘supported’ not ‘shored up’, ‘after’ not ‘in the wake of’.
Delete adverbs which do not add any clarification to a sentence, such as ‘certainly’.
Make verbs active: ‘Churchill and Roosevelt met’ not ‘A meeting was held between Churchill and Roosevelt’.
Rewrite sentences that start with a subclause unrelated to the subject. For example, ‘Although a Democrat elected with the votes of white Southerners, Roosevelt’s economic policies particularly benefited the poor’ is nonsense. The policies were not a Democrat. The sentence would be better if the main clause came first: ‘Roosevelt’s economic policies benefited the poor even though he was a Democrat elected with the votes of white Southerners.’

If in doubt about grammar, check a good reference book (see Resources).

Cross references

House style should include the following:

rules on capitalisation of references to diagrams, tables, chapters etc. (Figure 1 or figure 1 and so on)
whether to use page 00 or p. 0 (pages 00–00 or pp. 00–00 in the plural)
whether to elide numbers in page references: pp. 340–376, or pp. 340–76
rules on how footnotes are used, in particular whether they are numbered or indicated with symbols (see page 20)

Dates and times

Dates

Formatting of dates within a publication should be consistent. House style should dictate which of the following is used:

nineteenth century OR 19th century
20 March 2021 OR March 20 2021 (US format) – note that the superscript 20^th is not needed

Note that:

it is best to avoid using the format 10/3/2021 as the different US and British orderings of month and date can lead to confusion: this date is 10 March in the UK and 3 October in the USA
periods of dates are normally elided, e.g., 1994–97
apostrophes should not be used in dates, so 1970s NOT 1970’s, and seventies NOT ’seventies
in periods of dates ‘from’ and ‘to’ are used together, as are ‘between’ and ‘and’ – from 1976 to 2004, between 1976 and 2004 NOT from 1976–2004 or between 1976–2004

Times

Again, consistency is necessary:

use either the 12-hour or the 24-hour clock but don’t mix the two
use six minutes/six months/six days/six years OR 6 minutes/6 months/6 days/6 years but don’t mix the two
in publications such as textbooks which include other numbers and units (e.g., 6 m s⁻¹) it is best to use the ‘6 days’ format
10 a.m. is traditionally the correct format, NOT 10 am, but this may be a matter of house style
12 noon and 12 midnight are safest referred to as neither a.m. or p.m. (a.m. stands for ante meridiem or before noon, p.m. post meridiem)
use hyphens sparingly and only in dates used attributively: seven-year itch
vague time references such as ‘in the last year’, ‘at the time of writing’ and ‘recently’ should be made specific as they will quickly go out of date: ‘in 2020’, ‘in the second decade of the twenty-first century’
some writers still refer to the twentieth century as the century in which we are living (‘in the twentieth century we have seen…’) and this should be corrected

Measurements and units

In any publication that uses numbers and units, it is best to stick as much as possible to the SI units (Système International d'Unités) of the metric system, and their derivatives. Obviously this is not necessary in, for example, novels, and works of literary criticism or history, but for any vaguely scientific work it is important. Imperial units are still used in the USA and to some extent in the UK, which means that authors tend to mix, say, miles and metres, but this should be edited out. It is easy to convert units – search the conversion formula. The SI base units are the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela and mole. The accepted units you are likely to come across in non-specialist works are:

distance: metre (m), millimetre (mm), kilometre (km)
time: second (s), minute (min), hour (h)
area: square metre (m²), square kilometre (km²), hectare (ha)
volume: litre (l, or dm³)
mass: kilogram (kg), gram (g), tonne (t)
speed: metres per second (m s⁻¹), kilometres per hour (km h⁻¹)
acceleration: metres per second squared (m s⁻²)
temperature: kelvin (K), degrees Celsius (°C)
pressure: pascal (Pa), millibar (mbar), but mmHg is still sometimes used for air pressure and blood pressure

Figures, not words, should always be used with units. It is better practice to use the index (m s⁻¹) than the solidus (m/s) except in lower-level educational texts (under 16 years).

There is normally a thin space between the number and the unit, and between the different elements of a unit, but check house style.

Figures for percentages should use the % symbol. There is usually no space between number and symbol (5%), but again this depends on house style. % should not be used on its own, without figures.

Numbers occurring at the beginning of a sentence should always be spelt out as words (‘Five per cent of the population…’). If it is a complex number, rewrite the sentence so it does not appear at the beginning (‘The year 1666…’).

Figures which include decimal points should always have a number before the decimal point, if necessary zero. Probability values may be the exception in some house styles.

In numbers of five or more figures a thin space is used (10 000). In non-science subjects the alternative convention is to use a comma in numbers of four or more figures (1,000). Note that other European countries tend to use a decimal point instead of a comma. In texts for UK readership this is changed, but not in international publications. The copy editor should check what is required.

Symbols for units are roman not italic and take a capital when they are derived from a proper name, e.g., joules (J), watts (W), amperes (A).

Spell out ordinal numbers: first, second, third, fourth.

It is better to use a rounded number if the idea of approximation is expressed in the sentence (‘it is estimated that more than 12,000’ not ‘it is estimated that 12,031’).

Cookery books and specialist manuals have their own systems and styles of giving measurements

Abbreviations

An abbreviation is a general term for the shortened form of a word(s) or phrase. The two main types are abbreviations (formed by truncating a word(s) – DPI, Rt Hon., VCR) and acronyms (formed from the initial letters of a word(s) – GIF, SARS, radar – and pronounced as words themselves).

Most abbreviations should be given in full the first time they appear in the text, e.g., World Health Organization (WHO), unless they are in very common usage in the UK (BBC, UN, UNICEF).

Full points should not be used between letters in capitalised abbreviations (UK, not U.K.), but may appear in truncated terms, such as etc. They are not used in contractions, such as Dr Foster for Doctor Foster, except in US spelling.

If the abbreviation of a term is in capitals, the term itself can still be in lower case (e.g., the abbreviation for joules is J, the abbreviation for human immunodeficiency virus is HIV).

Inclusive language

Many organisations, in particular charities, local authorities and government bodies, have style rules about the way language is used when referring to difference or to minorities. In general, it is important to:

Avoid stereotypes in relation to gender, race, disability, age or sexual preference, in both text and illustrations.
Avoid terms such as ‘the elderly’, ‘the disabled’, ‘the blind’ and use ‘older people’, ‘people with disabilities’, ‘visually impaired people’ instead.
Avoid terms such as ‘mental illness’, ‘mentally ill people’, ‘depressed person’ and use ‘mental health problems’, ‘people with mental health conditions’, ‘a person with depression’ instead.
Use first name, forename or given name, not Christian name.
Research the preferred way of referring to particular groups if necessary. For example, those who have experienced abuse may prefer to be described as ‘survivors’ rather than ‘victims’ while ‘LGBTQ+’ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer and other categories) may be preferable to ‘gay community’.
The language around sex and gender is constantly changing and evolving, and it is crucial to know the difference between the two terms. Sex refers to the biological characteristics of males, females or intersex and is generally assigned at birth. Gender refers to an individual’s identity and how they see themselves (male, female, transgender, non-binary, gender neutral etc.). Sexual orientation has little to do with gender identity.
Instead of single, married, divorced, widow/widower use single, married/civil partner, divorced/dissolved civil partnership, widow/widower/surviving civil partner.
Use gender-neutral terms rather than those that make sex a distinction:
- you, they, them, their RATHER THAN he/she, him/her, or change the sentence structure to avoid use of specific gender
- parent or guardian RATHER THAN mother or father
- sibling RATHER THAN brother or sister
- avoid masculinised terms such as manpower, mankind, unmanned spacecraft (personnel, humankind, uncrewed spacecraft are correct)
- avoid using gender to define job roles such as actress, chairman, police woman, stewardess (actor, chairperson, police officer, flight attendant are correct)
- avoid referring to countries or ships as ‘she’
Only include details of a person’s skin colour, physical disability or gender if this is relevant to the context.
Avoid outdated terms such as Third World. (Use developing world or the global South.)

Safety

Educational publishers and organisations that work with young people must be particularly aware of safety. Books describing practical skills, such as cookery, DIY or science, should be checked for safety. Publications should:

Emphasise that young people (under 18) should not go out alone to carry out fieldwork. Make it clear that they should seek supervision when using equipment or working in potentially dangerous situations (such as a riverbank).
Describe the safety equipment (such as lab coats, gloves and goggles in a science lab, or scissors, glue and staplers at home) that should be used/worn. Include this equipment in any illustrations.
Avoid providing instructions or illustrations which might enable or encourage life-threatening activities, for example depicting illegal drug use, or giving instructions on how to tie a noose.
Ensure that technical details such as wiring diagrams, quantities in experiments and ingredients in recipes are checked by an expert.
Include guidelines to help young people stay safe on the internet, such as never giving out personal information to strangers online, and always seeking permission before downloading anything from the internet, subscribing to websites or posting anything online.

Unit 7 - Specialist subjects

Anyone working as a copy-editor should have sufficient subject knowledge to support the area in which they are working. Certain subjects require specialist knowledge, and copy-editors working in these fields are usually more highly paid, because there are fewer people offering these skills.

This module does not offer detailed coverage of the editorial skills required for such subjects, but provides some background for those who may have to work with specialist copy-editors.

For further information consult the reference books listed in Resources.

Science and medicine

See the sections on equations and symbols and measurements and units in Unit 6.

Some other points to note:

Variables should be in italic and vectors in bold italic. Italicisation of superscripts and subscripts follows this convention.
On paper, proof corrections to superscripts and subscripts must be clearly marked as such.
Greek letters and other symbols are commonly used in mathematics and physics. These can be inserted using Symbol or another Unicode-compliant font, but the typesetter must be made aware that these symbols are present and should be retained.
Hyphenation should be consistent through the publication. There are a number of conventions that should be covered by house style, for example X-ray but T lymphocyte.
Choice of font for science and mathematical books is critical. Lower case ell (l) must look different from 1, multiplication sign × must look different from lower-case ex (x) and numbers and individual letters must be clearly decipherable when used on their own.
In a ratio, the spaces either side of the colon should be the same, e.g., 1:1.
In biology, common names of plants and animals are always lower case. Names of genera and species are italic, in the form Bellis perennis. The species name should not be given alone, but in the form perennis. Other group names in the taxonomical system, from family up to kingdom, are roman with initial capital. Viruses follow a different convention.
Chemical symbols for elements are roman, initial cap (e.g., Cu for copper). They should not be used in text as a substitute for chemical names. The use of CO₂ to mean carbon dioxide is an affectation of non-scientists – no other compound is referred to by its formula in this way.
Structural chemical formulae are best dealt with as artworks and referred to with captions. There are strict conventions in how these are drawn and specialised software is required.
pH is a measure of acidity/alkalinity based on a negative log of hydrogen ion concentration. pH cannot be zero and a high pH indicates alkalinity not acidity (non-scientists often get this wrong).
The symbol for an isotope is a superscript before the letter, e.g., ¹⁴C for carbon-14.
Drugs should be described by their generic name rather than their brand name wherever possible (e.g., ibuprofen NOT Nurofen).

Modern foreign languages (MFL)

MFL are described as such to distinguish them from the classical languages – Latin and Greek. Most MFL publishing is for those learning foreign languages, whether this be school students or adult learners.

In order to ensure accuracy and currency any MFL title should be edited or checked by a native speaker – this usually means a copy-editor who grew up in the country where the language is spoken. If the copy-editor is not a native speaker then a native-speaker reader should be employed, even if the author is a native speaker (we do not rely on the editorial skills of authors in other areas of publishing).

In English books foreign words and phrases are italicised, but this is not the case in language books.

The common accents (acute, grave, umlaut, tilde) can be inserted using keyboard commands. Google how to do this in your operating system.

Some languages have a number of different characters from English, or completely different alphabets, and may require a different keyboard, but it is possible to type most languages using the specialist fonts available in Word.

Chinese is commonly romanised using the Pinyin system.

Plays

Plays are conventionally laid out with the character names in small capitals before the start of each speech. The speech is indented. Character names are often abbreviated.

MERCUTIO: O, then, I see Queen Mab hath been with you.
She is the fairies' midwife, and she comes
In shape no bigger than an agate-stone

Software such as Celtx allows playwrights to easily format their typescripts in this way as they write.

Stage directions are normally in italic and either centred between speeches or in square brackets at the beginning or end of a speech, depending on whether the action takes place during the speech or not. Each publisher will have its own detailed style for layout of plays.

There is normally a list of characters on the verso page facing the start of the text, with names in small caps and brief descriptions of who they are in italic. The copy-editor should check that this list is complete and that the names are spelt consistently throughout.

Copy-editing of plays is like copy-editing of fiction. The copy-editor should check continuity, and edit in track changes, being sure to retain the style of the writer.

Plays that are in copyright should include a note about performance rights on the title verso/imprint page.

Poetry

The layout of poetry is part of the way the poem is read – lines may be indented by different amounts, centred or may even make patterns. It is essential to retain this in the typesetting and it may be necessary to provide the typesetter with a PDF or screenshot to show how the poem should look.

Particular care should be taken with returns, so that lines and verses break correctly. If a line has to be broken to fit on the page, the text after the break should be indented.

Beware of automatic capitalisation in software such as Word. Some poets, such as Seamus Heaney, start each line with a capital letter, but many do not. All quirks of capitalisation and punctuation should be retained by the copy-editor.

It is not possible to fix the layout of text in an eBook and poems may have to be reproduced as images in order to retain their visual appearance.

Collections of poems traditionally have an index of first lines as well as an author index and sometimes a title index.

When quoting poetry in-line a solidus (/) can be used to indicate a line break. Quotations of poems displayed in text do not need quotation marks. Note that copyright permission is required if using more than a few lines from a poem that is in copyright. If it is a famous poem, even quoting a single line may require permission, depending on context (see the section on copyright, Unit 2).

Titles of poems quoted in text are roman with quotation marks, with the exception of book-length poems (such as Paradise Lost), which are italic. Titles of poetry collections take italic.

Law

Law cases are conventionally named in the style: Smith v. Bloggs.

Legal terms in Latin such as actus reus, extant, habeus corpus are italicised.

Extracts from statutes and cases should not be edited for house style or corrected in any way.

There are conventions in the way statutes and law reports are referred to – check a publisher’s house style for this.

The word ‘Act’ is always capitalised but other terms such as judge, court, session, bench, should not be capitalised unless they are part of a proper name.

Music

Music publishing is highly specialised and software such as Sibelius is available in which composers can write music. A music copy-editor is expected to have at least a first degree in music, and to understand all the conventions of musical notation.

The following conventions apply to quoting the titles of pieces of music:

italic for names of major works such as operas and ballets (but not nicknames of symphonies such as ‘Eroica’)
roman with quote marks for song titles (‘Happy Birthday’), italic for titles of song cycles (e.g., Kindertotenlieder)
roman for concertos, symphonies, masses and titles of chamber works such as trios and sonatas
italic for Latin names of masses and other religious works but roman for the parts of the mass (Kyrie eleison, Agnus Dei)
and No. are capitalised
Mozart works are numbered K (Köchel) not Op., and Bach works are numbered BWV (Bach Werke Verzeichnis)
italic for titles of rock and pop albums, roman with quote marks for song titles (‘Rock Around The Clock’). Note that all words in album and song titles are usually capitalised (although house style takes precedence) and original punctuation should be used (What’s The Story) Morning Glory?, ‘You’ve Lost That Lovin’ Feelin’’.

Music is protected by copyright in the same way as text. If audio files are part of the publication, copyright must be sought from the performers as well as the composer. Copyright for both performers and composers can be cleared through MCPS and PRS for Music. Single lines or even chords of popular music may require copyright clearance (e.g., the opening chord from ‘A Hard Day’s Night’ by The Beatles).

What next?

Now that you have read through all seven units, it’s time to try your hand at a practical exercise.

Return to the module dashboard and open the final lesson where you will find a brief, an exercise to download and complete, and a model answer so that you can check your work.

Included as a separate section under Resources, you will find a list of helpful reference books, the glossary, and the appendices mentioned throughout the module.

There are also some suggestions about Next Steps for you to read once you have completed the copy-editing test.

What to do

Edit the following text from a local history magazine, paying attention to grammar, spelling, punctuation, sense and consistency. Mark heading levels for the typesetter and indicate where the two photographs should be placed.

How to do it

If you wish to work on-screen, turn on Track Changes in MS Word and then mark up the document. Alternatively, you can print the exercise and mark up by hand. We have provided a model answer for both methods.

Exercise	Download
Model Answer (MS Word)	Download
Model Answer (hard copy)	Download

Extract (but not errors) from Bygone Kent magazine by kind permission of the publishers (bygonekent.org.uk/).

After reading the chapters contained in this module, and having a go at the exercise, you are sure that copy-editing is for you. So, what do you do next?

The best option for those interested in an editorial career, particularly a freelance career, is one of our full Tutor-Guided Self-Study programmes.

Which course to choose depends on your current knowledge and experience level.

Essential Proofreading: Editorial Skills One is a course designed for those who have very little or perhaps no experience of proofreading, copy-editing or the publishing industry. It is a perfect first step into creating a successful editorial career.

If you are already an experienced proofreader and would like to expand your skills into copy-editing, then Essential Copy-Editing: Editorial Skills Two is the option for you.

If you have any queries about these or any of PTC's courses, please don't hesitate to contact them at courses@publishingtrainingcentre.co.uk. Make sure you mention that you enrolled yourself in the "A Comprehensive Guide to the Role of Copy-Edit" course on the IPA Academy site.

Reference books used by copy-editors

A good, single-volume dictionary. Google is no substitute.

New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors (Oxford University Press): A good reference for questions of style, capitalisation, hyphenation and so on.

New Hart’s Rules (Oxford University Press): A guide to preparing copy for publication and companion to the Writers and Editors Dictionary.

Butcher’s Copy Editing: The Cambridge Handbook for Editors, Copy-editors and Proofreaders (Cambridge University Press): The copy-editor’s bible. Expensive to buy new, but older editions may be available second hand.

A pocket spelling and word-break dictionary, such as the New Oxford Spelling Dictionary is useful for checking hyphenation when proofreading.

New Oxford Dictionary for Scientific Writers and Editors (Oxford University Press).

The Chicago Manual of Style (The University of Chicago Press): Useful for publications that use US conventions.

The Elements of Style (Longman): Classic style manual for US English.

There are a number of books and essays about good writing style by authorities such as George Orwell or Kingsley Amis, all of which are good reading. A helpful book on how to write clearly is Essential English for Journalists, Editors and Writers, by Harold Evans, a former editor of The Times (Pimlico).

Glossary

Advance copy Copy of a new book supplied to the publisher or author immediately after printing for a final check.

Artwork Illustrative material such as diagrams, maps and graphs that are created in different software from the text.

Artwork brief Marked-up artwork rough provided to typesetter or illustrator instructing them on the details of each illustration required.

Artwork rough Drawing provided by author in a format unsuitable for publication. Marked up by copy-editor or desk editor as part of the artwork brief.

Backlist The books already published by an imprint, that are still in print and available for purchase.

Bleed A colour or image is said to ‘bleed off’ the page when there is no white space at the margin, but the image goes beyond the edge of the trimmed page. The ‘bleed’ is the part of the image that extends beyond the trim by a few millimetres to allow for error in trimming.

Body text The main text on a page, as opposed to text styled as headings, boxes etc.

Collation In the context of proofreading this means combining several sets of corrections onto one set of proofs. In printing it means putting the pages in the right order.

Copy The raw material with which an editor works – usually text but it can also refer to visual elements of a publication.

Cut-out image Manipulating a photograph so that part of the background is deleted to leave a distinct shape, such as someone’s head, that can be used creatively in design.

eBook Any digital version of a published book, readable on a mobile device or in a browser.

Elision Running together pairs of numbers, so ‘1914–1918 war’ becomes ‘1914–18 war’, or ‘pages 356–359’, becomes ‘pages 356–59’, or ‘pages 356–9’.

ePub Electronic publication. ePub is a file format that allows reflowable text for mobile devices, and fixed-layout for viewing in a browser.

Even working The number of pages required to ensure that a book is made up of multiples of the number of pages on a printing sheet.

Extent The number of pages in a printed publication. Because of the way books are printed, the extent has to be in multiples of the number of pages on a printing sheet, for example 16 or 24. In commissioning, extent is normally by word count.

Folio Printed page number on the page of a publication. Can also refer to the page itself, especially in a volume bound from separate sheets.

Font Typeface and size. A ‘font’ includes italic and bold versions, capitals and small capitals. The proof correction ‘wrong font’ or ‘w/f’ means that the wrong typeface or size has been used.

Format In book publishing format refers to the size and shape of the book. There are a number of different formats – for example popular paperback novels are usually published in A-format while more literary novels appear in the larger B-format.

Frontlist Books recently published by an imprint, or scheduled to be published.

Hard copy Paper print-out of typescript, proofs or other document, as opposed to ‘soft’ electronic file.

House style The conventions of spelling, punctuation, naming etc. used by a particular organisation, usually set out in some kind of document.

HTML Hypertext markup language or HTML is a form of tagging used to create web pages. Browsers can read the HTML files and convert them to viewable pages.

Imposition Books and periodicals are printed on large sheets of eight or more pages which are then folded and bound. Imposition is laying out the pages in the correct pattern on these sheets so that they will appear in the right order when folded.

Imprint In publishing this refers to the brand name under which a book is published, for example Sphere is an imprint of Little, Brown Book Group, owned by Hachette UK. The term ‘imprint’ also describes the publisher’s details printed in the book.

In-house Within a company. Used to refer to processes and people, so ‘edited in-house’ means a script is edited by an employee rather than a freelance.

In press Status of a journal article or a book that has been accepted for publication but is not yet out in print.

ISBN International standard book number. The number is 13 digits long and every published book is assigned a unique number. Periodicals have a different system known as an ISSN.

Justified text When the right-hand edge of a block of text is aligned as well as the left. Unjustified text usually has a ‘ragged right’ edge.

Laser proofs Hard-copy proofs printed on a laser printer, which are intended for prepress content checking.

List The books published by an imprint. See backlist and frontlist.

Manuscript Literally means hand-written script but is used interchangeably with typescript.

Mark-up Typescripts or proofs may be marked by hand to indicate the changes required. Standard symbols are used for this.

Orphan The first line of a paragraph occurring as the last line at the bottom of a page. The proofreader should find a way to take the line over to the next page.

Pantone colour Colour in printed material created by using a specially coloured ink.

PDF (portable document format) A format in which files created in other software applications can be saved for universal use. Adobe Acrobat Reader, available free to download, can be used to view PDFs and mark up PDFs. For more invasive tasks such as extracting pages, a PDF editor software such as Adobe Acrobat Professional must be purchased.

Prelims The preliminary pages in a publication, often numbered separately with roman numerals. The prelims include primarily the title pages, contents and imprint page.

Print PDF The electronic version of a book (usually a large file size) supplied to a printer.

Print run Number of copies to be printed.

Process colour Colour in printed material created by using a combination of cyan, magenta, yellow and black inks. It is also known as four-colour.

Range left/right Align a section of text to the left or right of the page. See justified text.

Recto Right-hand page in a book or magazine. The convention is that recto pages have odd page numbers (1, 3 etc.)

Reprint A repeat printing of a book, using the same typeset material with only minor corrections, because the previous number of copies printed has sold.

Resolution The amount of information a digital image holds, measured in pixels or dots per inch. For print reproduction an image should be 300 dpi, for web use 72 dpi.

Roman Used to mean text that is not italic or bold and does not use special characters. (Roman is the alphabet used for English.)

Running feet and running heads The small repeated text at the very bottom and top of a page that helps the reader navigate a book by repeating e.g. chapter number and title of the book (novels) or section head (educational and academic books).

Running sheets Printed pages of a book, folded but not bound, and supplied to the publisher for checking.

Saddle-stitched Binding of books and magazines by stapling through the centrefold. There is a limit to the number of pages that can be bound like this.

Self-cover The cover of a publication that is printed on the same paper as the internal pages.

Signature Section of a book made up of one printed sheet folded to form pages.

Slippage A publication falling behind schedule and failing to meet its publication date. Publishers try to avoid this as it may affect sales.

Solidus Forward slash symbol.

Spread-based Printed publications that have specific content laid out across double-page spreads. Highly illustrated books such as children’s books often work in this way, as opposed to books such as novels, where the text runs on to the next page regardless of content.

Subscript A small letter or numeral set below the line next to a standard-size character, normally used in chemical formulas or mathematical equations (e.g., H₂O, x₃).

Superscript A small letter or numeral set above the line next to a standard-size character, normally to denote an integer or power (e.g., square metres, m²).

Tagging Adding symbols to text to indicate how it should appear. These symbols can be read by the software which converts the text for publication. HTML uses tags in angle brackets to format text for web pages. For example, <title>Title of the document</title>

Thin space Space narrower than a word space, used between a number and unit and between different components of a unit. It is traditionally a quarter of an em.

Tipped-in pages Pages printed on a different type of paper, usually illustrations on coated paper, may be inserted by hand at the binding stage of a book and glued to the adjacent section or page.

Title How publishers refer to a product such as a particular book or magazine.

Trade In publishing, trade means books that are sold to the general public, traditionally through retailers such as bookshops, WH Smith and Amazon, as opposed to specialist areas of publishing such as educational, academic, medical.

Typescript (script) The text of a document before it is typeset. It is normally presented as an electronic file in Word or similar software.

Typeset Literally, setting text in type. The term refers to the time when letters were moulded in hot metal. Typesetting software such as Adobe InDesign allows much more control over the appearance and structure of a page than is possible with word-processing software.

Typo Short for typographical error. Spelling mistake, repetition of a word, double space and such like.

UK GDPR The UK General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is a legal framework that sets guidelines for the use, collection and processing of individuals’ personal information and data. It sits alongside the Data Protection Act (2018).

Variable In maths, a symbol (such as x or n) representing an unspecified number. Takes italic.

Vector In maths, a variable that has direction as well as magnitude. Takes bold italic.

Verso Left-hand page in a book or magazine. The convention is that verso pages have even numbers (2, 4 etc.)

Wet proofs Sheets straight off a printing press that are checked as proofs while printing is taking place.

White space A design principle that denotes the amount of space in and around the words on a page, either intentionally (for aesthetic purposes and legibility) or unintentionally through typesetting (e.g., at the end of a chapter, before a table – editors prefer to ‘fill’ wasteful white space where possible).

Widow The last line of a paragraph at the top of a new page. The proofreader should find a way to take the line back to the previous page.

XML A mark-up language that is used to encode text for electronic publication.

APPENDIX 1: Sample indexing brief

Book brief for indexer

Title of book

ISBN:

Title: The Ultimate Chocolate Companion ISBN: XXXXXXXXXXXXX

Editor/contact: Ed de Toure

Phone: XXXXX XXXXXX E-mail: ed@choccibooks.com

Alternative contact: Anne Nother

Phone: XXXXX XXXXXX E-mail: anne@choccibooks.com

Total no. pages: 128 Indexable pages: 120

Deadline: date

Length of index: 4 pages set in 2 columns of about 40 lines (absolute max is 6 pages)

Main heading arrangement: letter-by-letter Number entries: as spelled

Subheadings:

Format: set out Arrangement: alphabetic

Cross references: see ABC see also run off main heading

Punctuation: commas between headings, subheadings and between locators only

Capitalisation: proper names only

Location ranges: elided according to Harts rules using en rules, e.g. 1–9, 11–19, 20–23, 100–09, 156–58, 1,000–1,010

Definitions: key terms on pages to be indexed (emboldened)

Diagrams indexed: include as part of text – not italic

Bibliography: none Glossary: none

Submission of index: as RTF e-mail attachment Quotation: max budget £500

APPENDIX 2: Sample illustration checklist

WIC res pic1

APPENDIX 3: Sample artwork brief

Artwork brief

Date		ISBN
Book title
Figure number
Style of artwork	[graph/map/cartoon etc]	Typesetter/artist
Colour	[BW/4-colour/2-colour]
Size	[depth/width]

Description, caption or title of image:

Notes and instructions to artist:

[add here]

Visual reference:

[paste here]

When a visual reference is supplied, select one of the following:

☐ This is an original drawing by our author and can be closely copied.

☐ This is an original sketch by our author; it can be closely copied but in a more formal style.

☐ This is an image owned by someone else and Hodder Editorial are obtaining permission to reproduce it. Copy it exactly, other than changes to font, spelling etc.

☐ This is an image owned by someone else and is provided for reference only. Do not make a direct copy of the image. Refer to instructions in this brief.

☐ This is a re-use with amends. Hodder owns the existing artwork and a copy will be supplied for you to amend.

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https://www.publishingtrainingcentre.co.uk/

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A comprehensive guide to copy-editing